oclipa/reactjs-cheat-sheet: An overview of React

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React

Recommended Course:

React - The Complete Guide (incl Hooks, React Router, Redux)

Based on: https://reactjs.org/docs/thinking-in-react.html

Break data model into components that (ideally) only do one thing.
- Single Responsibility Principle
Break down UI into components, where each component matches one piece of the data model.
Arrange UI components into a hierarchy.
Build a static version of the hierarchy in React.
- At this stage, use props rather than state (see "What is the difference between state and props").
- Each component should only have a render() method (since it is static).
- Generally, build bottom-up (i.e. low level of heirarchy first) and write tests as you build.
- Data will be input as a prop into the top of the hierarchy, e.g. in index.js:
  - ReactDOM.render(<App data="dataSource" />, document.getElementById('root'));
Identify the minimum set of mutable (i.e. changeable) state required by the app.
- Don't Repeat Yourself Principle
- e.g. it is good for state to reference an array, but not the number of items in the array.
- Three questions:
  - Is it passed in from a parent via props? If so, it probably isn’t state.
  - Does it remain unchanged over time? If so, it probably isn’t state.
  - Can you compute it based on any other state or props in your component? If so, it isn’t state.
Identify which component mutates, or owns, the state.
- For each piece of state in your application:
  - Identify every component that renders something based on that state.
  - Find a common owner component (a single component above all the components that need the state in the hierarchy).
  - Either the common owner or another component higher up in the hierarchy should own the state.
  - If you can’t find a component where it makes sense to own the state, create a new component solely for holding the state and add it somewhere in the hierarchy above the common owner component.
- The owner of the state will pass it to components that need it via props.
- Components that mutate state should avoid UI rendering.
Add inverse data flow (i.e. from lower hierarchy to higher).
- Components should only update their own state.
- Pass callbacks (e.g. onChange event) from higher components to lower components, which will fire when the state should be updated.
- The callbacks will call setState().

Based on: https://reactjs.org/docs/design-principles.html

The key feature of React is composition of components.
- Components should be able to be changed without affecting the rest of the codebase.
- Components describe any composable behaviour, which includes rendering, lifecycle and state.
Resist adding features that can be implemented by clients.
- Minimal API Surface Area
- Only add out-of-scope features if it will avoid clients producing multiple solutions to the same problem.
Before deprecating a feature, always consider all use cases and communicate reasons and alternatives to clients.
If some pattern is hard to express in a declarative way ("I want a table for two"), provide an imperative API ("Go to restaurant, speak to waiter, etc.)").
If you can't identify a perfect API, provide a temporary subpar API (but it must be temporary).
Value API stability.
- When something changes, there should be a clear (and preferably automated) migration path.
- Deprecate APIs internally first, before deprecating them for clients (to allow validation).
- Add deprecation warnings in the current major version and change the behaviour in the following major release.
- Consider using codemod scripts for changes that require a lot of repetitive manual work.
Value interoperability.
- Enable gradual adoption by allowing existing functionality to be wrapped by new functionality.
Perform the minimum amount of work before returning to React.
- Allows React to schedule and split work.
Be renderer-agnostic
- Don't assume the app will only run in a browser.
- e.g. [https://reactnative.dev](React Native)
Aim for elegant APIs but prefer ugly APIs if they avoid work for the client.
- Correct, performant and a good developer experience are more important than elegant.
Prefer boring code to clever code.
- Avoid new internal abstractions.
- Verbose code is easier to move around and change.
Use verbose name for APIs.
- Make points of interaction highly visible and distinct.
- Optimize for search (makes automated updates easier).
Eat Your Own Dog Food
- But be open to the idea that external clients may have other use cases.

index.js

(boiler-plate code generated by create-react-app)

import React from 'react';
import ReactDOM from 'react-dom';
import './index.css';
import App from './App';
import * as serviceWorker from './serviceWorker';

ReactDOM.render(
  <React.StrictMode>
    <App />
  </React.StrictMode>,
  document.getElementById('root')
);

// If you want your app to work offline and load faster, you can change
// unregister() to register() below. Note this comes with some pitfalls.
// Learn more about service workers: https://bit.ly/CRA-PWA
serviceWorker.unregister();

App.js

(created from template generated by create-react-app)

// imports ////////////////////////////////////////////////////

import React, { Component } from 'react';
import ReactDOM from 'react-dom';
import './App.css';
import Calculator from './Calculator/Calculator.js';

// App class //////////////////////////////////////////////////

class App extends Component {
  
  // application state ////////////////////////////////////////

  state = {
    algName: 'None',
    val1: 0,
    val2: 0
  };
  
  // event handlers and functions /////////////////////////////

  val1ChangedHandler = ( event ) => {
    this.setState( 
        {
          algName: "None",
          val1: event.target.value
        } 
      );
  };

  val2ChangedHandler = ( event ) => {
    this.setState( 
        {
          algName: "None",
          val2: event.target.value
        } 
      );
  };
  
  doCalculationHandler = ( event ) => {
    this.setState( 
        {
          algName: event.target.value
        } 
      );
  };

  // render ////////////////////////////////////////////////////

  render() {
    // local style /////////////////////////////////////////////
    const style = {
      backgroundColor: 'green',
      color: 'white',
      font: 'inherit',
      border: '1px solid blue',
      padding: '8px',
      cursor: 'pointer'
    };
    
    let a = this.state.algName;
    let v1 = this.state.val1;
    let v2 = this.state.val2;

    let calc = (<Calculator algName={a} val1={v1} val2={v2} />);

    return (
      <div className="App"> {/* required */} 
        <div className="inputs">
            <input type="text" 
                    onChange={(event) => 
                                this.val1ChangedHandler(event)} 
                    value={v1} />
            
            <input type="text" 
                    onChange={(event) => 
                                this.val2ChangedHandler(event)} 
                    value={v2} />
            
            <div className = "buttons">
              <button style={style} 
                      onClick={(event) => 
                                this.doCalculationHandler(event)}
                      value="add">Add</button>
              <button style={style} 
                      onClick={(event) => 
                                this.doCalculationHandler(event)}
                      value="subtract">Subtract</button>
            </div>
        </div>
        <div className="output">
          {calc}
        </div>
      </div>
    );
  }
}

export default App;

Calculator/Calculator.js

(created manually)

import React from 'react';
import './Calculator.css';

const calculator = (props) => {
    
    const algName = props.algName;
    const val1 = parseFloat(props.val1);
    const val2 = parseFloat(props.val2);
    
    let result = 0;
    
    if (algName === 'add') {
      result = val1 + val2;
    }
    else if (algName === 'subtract') {
      result = val1 - val2;
    }
    else if (algName === 'None') {
      return <span></span>
    }
    
    return (
        <span>Result = {result}</span>
    )
};

export default calculator;

Functional component names should start with an uppercase letter.
Functional components should be used if the component is not stateful.

Basic Implementation

// ES5
function Welcome(props) {
  return <h1>Hello, {props.name}</h1>;
}

// ES6
const Welcome = (props) => {
  return <h1>Hello, {props.name}</h1>;
}

Details

Functional components do not access props via this(e.g. props.XY).

Pros:

Functional components are generally considered easier to read and test.
Code tends to be smaller.
It is easier to separate container and presentational components.
There may be a performance boost in future React versions.

Cons:

You cannot call setState() in a functional component.
- As of React 16.8, you can use the useState() hook but this only allows you to overwrite the state, rather than merging updates into the existing state.
You cannot use lifecycle hooks in a functional component.
- As of React 16.8, you can use the useEffect() hook, however this is not as fine-grained as lifecycle hooks.
- useEffect() allows you to perform an action after render() has been called.

See the React Hooks section, below, for further information.

Class component names should start with an uppercase letter.
Class components should be used if the component is stateful, or there is a need to use lifecycle methods (e.g. componentDidMount()).

Basic Implementation

class Welcome extends React.Component {
  render() {
    return <h1>Hello, {this.props.name}</h1>;
  }
}

Details

Class components must access state and props using this(e.g. this.state.XY).
As a general rule of thumb, class components are preferred if you need fine-grained control of state, or you need actions performed outside of render() and you do not want to use React Hooks.

Class Component LifeCycle

This is only available to Class components.
Lifecycle Hooks have nothing to do with React Hooks!

Original Image © Dan Abramov: https://overreacted.io/
Interactive Version

Mounting
1. constructor()
  - Call super(props)
  - Use to set up state
  - Don't cause Side-Effects
2. getDerivedStateFromProps(props, state)
  - Sync state with props
  - Very niche case
  - Don't cause Side-Effects
3. render()
  - Prepare and Structure your JSX code
  - Don't do any actions that will block the rendering process.
  - Only completes after render() has been called for all children.
4. componentDidMount() <-- Commonly used
  - Very common
  - Can cause Side-Effects (e.g. send http requests)
  - Don't update state (at least, not synchronously)
  - Only called when a component is first mounted; use componentDidUpdate() if component is already displayed
5. componentWillMount()
  - Available but deprecated
  - Do not use
Updating
1. getDerivedStateFromProps(props, state)
  - See above
2. componentWillReceiveProps(props)
  - Available but deprecated
  - Do not use
3. shouldComponentUpdate(nextProps, nextState) <-- Commonly used
  - Used to cancel update process (even if Virtual DOM changes)
  - Typically used for performance reasons, but needs to be used sparingly.
  - e.g. return nextProps.property !== this.props.property
  - For a functional equivalent to this, see React.memo().
4. render()
  - See above
5. getSnapshotBeforeUpdate(prevProps, prevState)
  - Another niche method
  - Last minute DOM operations (e.g. getting current scrolling position of user)
  - Don't cause Side-Effects
6. componentWillUpdate()
  - Available but deprecated
  - Do not use
7. componentDidUpdate() <-- Commonly used
  - Can cause Side-Effects (e.g. send http requests)
  - Don't update state (at least, not synchronously)
  - Only called when a component is already displayed; use componentDidMount() if component is not yet displayed
Unmounting (clean-up)
- componentWillUnmount()
Other
- componentDidCatch()

A PureComponent is essentially the same as a Component except that it checks to see if either the props or state has changed before allowing the Virtual DOM to be updated.
- i.e. This is a replacement for shouldComponentUpdate() (which will ignored for a PureComponent).
- Note that all children must extend PureComponent.

import React, { PureComponent } from 'react';

class App extends PureComponent {
  
  ...
  
  render() {
    ...
  };
}

The render() method does not allow adjacent elements (i.e. ones with the same root) to be returned, e.g.

return (
    <p onClick={
      this.props.click
    }>
      I'm {this.props.name} and 
      I am {this.props.age} years old!
    </p>
    <p>{this.props.children}</p>
    <input 
      type="text" 
      onChange={this.props.changed} 
      value={this.props.name} 
    />
)

There are several ways around this:

Use a Root Element

return (
    <div>
      <p onClick={
        this.props.click
      }>
        I'm {this.props.name} and 
        I am {this.props.age} years old!
      </p>
      <p>{this.props.children}</p>
      <input 
        type="text" 
        onChange={this.props.changed} 
        value={this.props.name} 
      />
    </div>
)

Use Square Brackets

In this case, essentially you are returning an array, which means the elements need to be delimited by commas.
Also, a key needs to be specified for each element.

return (
    [
      <p key="i1" onClick={
        this.props.click
      }>
        I'm {this.props.name} and 
        I am {this.props.age} years old!
      </p>
      <p key="i2">{this.props.children}</p>
      <input
        key="i3"
        type="text" 
        onChange={this.props.changed} 
        value={this.props.name} 
      />
    ]
)

Use a Wrapper/Aux Function

In some places this function is referred to as Aux, however this is a reserved word on Windows and should be avoided (unless you can guarantee that Windows will never be used for development).

Wrapper.js

import React from 'react';

const wrapper = props => props.children;

export default wrapper;

Person.js

import Wrapper from '../../../hoc/Wrapper';

...

render() {
  return (
      <Wrapper>
        <p onClick={
          this.props.click
        }>
          I'm {this.props.name} and 
          I am {this.props.age} years old!
        </p>
        <p>{this.props.children}</p>
        <input 
          type="text" 
          onChange={this.props.changed} 
          value={this.props.name} 
        />
      </Wrapper>
  );
}

Use React.Fragment

Since React 16.8, there is a built-in version of Wrapper called React.Fragment:

Person.js

import React, { Component, Fragment } 
        from 'react';
...

render() {
  return (
      <Fragment>
        <p onClick={
          this.props.click
        }>
          I'm {this.props.name} and 
          I am {this.props.age} years old!
        </p>
        <p>{this.props.children}</p>
        <input 
          type="text" 
          onChange={this.props.changed} 
          value={this.props.name} 
        />
      </Fragment>
  );
}

The Wrapperand Fragment components are examples of Higher Order Components. This means that they wrap another component and add specific, limited functionality to the wrapped component.

There is a general convention to name HOCs with a With at the beginning, and place them in an hoc folder.

There are two approaches to defining HOCs:

Return a JSX Functional Component

In this case, the HOC typically wraps group of elements rendered by a component.
This approach is recommended when changing the HTML code or styling.

hoc/WithClass.js (upper-case 'W' to indicate this is a component, not function)

import React from 'react';

const WithClass = props => (
  <div className={props.classes}>
    {props.children}
  </div>
);

export default WithClass;

containers/App.js

import React from 'react';

// upper-case 'W' to indicate this 
// is a component, not a function
import WithClass from '../hoc/WithClass';

class App extends Component { 
  ...
 
  render() {
    return (
      <WithClass classes={styles.App}>
        ...
      </WithClass>
    );
  } 
}

export default App;

Return a JS Function That Returns a JSX Functional Component

In this case, the HOC typically wraps a component and adds extra functionality.
This approach is recommended for adding behind-the-scenes logic, e.g. error handling or sending analytic data.

hoc/withClass.js (lower-case 'w' to indicate this is a function, not component)

import React from 'react';

const withClass = 
  (WrappedComponent, className) => {
    return props => (
      <div className={className}>
        <WrappedComponent {...props} />}
      </div>
  );
};

export default withClass;

containers/App.js

import React from 'react';

// lower-case 'w' to indicate this 
// is a function, not component
import withClass from '../hoc/WithClass';
import Wrapper from '../hoc/Wrapper';
  
class App extends Component {
  ...
 
  render() {
    return (
      <Wrapper>
        ...
      </Wrapper>
    );
  } 
}

export default withClass(App, styles.App);

There are two approaches to handling application state:

state
props

state

state, as the name suggests, records the current state of a class component.
Not all components need to have state (it can be maintained by a parent component).
The state object is defined at the top of the class definition:

import React, { Component } from 'react';
import Town from 'Town';

class App extends Component {
  state = {
    persons: [
      { name: 'Fred', age: 40 },
      { name: 'Wilma', age: 35 },
      { name: 'Barney', age: 38 },
    ],
    location: 'Bedrock'
  };
  
  ...
  
  render() {
    return (
      <Town
        name={this.state.location}
        persons={this.state.persons}
        clicked={this.deleteOldestHandler}
      />
    );
  }
}

In class components, state should be updated using the setState() function; it should never be updated directly (e.g. do not use this.state.name = newName).
Be aware that setState() is asynchronous. Calling setState() should be considered a request that React may ignore. This is particularly true if setState() is called multiple times in the same update cycle; later calls may overwrite earlier ones.
In addition, it is good practice to only ever change state properties immutably. This can be achieved by making a copy of the property to be updated, updating the copy and then overwriting the original property, e.g.

Bearing these issues in mind, the recommended pattern is the following:

deleteOldestHandler = () => {
  // create a copy of the person array
  // using the spread operator
  const persons = [...this.state.persons];

  // sort the array by increasing age and 
  // remove the last person
  persons.sort((a, b) => a.age - b.age).pop();
  
  // overwrite the old array with the new one.
  // also update a counter of number of people 
  // deleted.
  // prevState is guaranteed to be the latest
  // state.
  this.setState((prevState, props) => { 
    return {
      persons: persons, 
      deleteCounter: prevState.deleteCounter + 1
    };
  });
}

props

Unlike state, both Class components and Functional components can access the props object.
- For Class components, this is done use the this keyword: persons = this.props.persons;.
- For Functional components, the props object is passed in as a function parameter: const Town = (props) => { persons = props.persons; }
The props object is read-only. It is created from the element properties of the component: <Town persons={persons} />.
Since props cannot be updated, the only way to update the state is via callbacks passed via the props object. In this way, the parent object both owns the state and is responsible for updating it.

import React from 'react';

const Town = (props) => { 
  return (
    <div>
      <h1>Name: {props.name}</h1>
      <h1>Occupants: {props.persons.length}</h1>
      <button onClick={props.clicked}>
        Remove Oldest Person
      </button>
    </div>
  );
}

export default Town;

useState()

The useState() function is an example of a React Hook, which allows Functional Components to replicate and replace behaviour in Class-Based Components.

For further information, see the React Hooks section, below.

PropTypes allow control of the data types used in the app (i.e. more like a strongly-typed language). This is a feature provided by React, but it is not included in React Core, so it needs to be installed:

Install: npm install prop-types
Import: import PropTypes from 'prop-types';

PropTypes can be used on both class and functional components. They are particularly important when you are sharing components with other people.

import React, { Component } from 'react';
import PropTypes from 'prop-types';

class Person extends Component {
  render() {
    return (
      <Wrapper>
        <p onClick={this.props.click}>
          I'm {this.props.name} and I 
          am {this.props.age} years old!
        </p>
        <p>{this.props.children}</p>
        <input 
          type="text" 
          onChange={this.props.changed} 
          value={this.props.name} 
        />
      </Wrapper>
    ); 
  }
};

// specify prop values types after 
// component has been defined
Person.propTypes = {
  click: PropTypes.func,
  name: PropTypes.string,
  age: PropTypes.number,
  changed: PropTypes.func
};

export default withClass(Person, styles.Person);

Refs (i.e. references) are used to accessing specific elements of the DOM. Specifically, there are used for accessing HTML elements or class components (they cannot be used to reference functional components, although functional components can use refs via React Hooks - see below).

In the following example, a ref is added to the input element. The ref points to a function that creates a new class property that points to the input element.

The property is the used to ensure that, when the Person components are mounted, the text field for the last Person mounted will be given the focus.

In older code, an example implementation might be:

import React, { Component } from 'react';
import PropTypes from 'prop-types';

class Person extends Component {
  constructor() {
    this.inputElement = React.createRef();
  }
  
  componentDidMount() {
    this.myInputElement.focus();
  }
  
  render() {
    return (
      <Wrapper>
        ...
        
        <input 
          ref={
            (el) => {
              this.myInputElement = el
             };
          };
          type="text" 
          onChange={this.props.changed} 
          value={this.props.name} 
        />
      </Wrapper>
    ); 
  }
};

In newer code, an alternative approach is to create a generic ref in the constructor and then attach this to the current element of interest:

import React, { Component } from 'react';
import PropTypes from 'prop-types';

class Person extends Component {
  constructor(props) {
    super(props);
    this.elementRef = React.createRef();
  }
  
  componentDidMount() {
    // current gives access to the 
    // current reference
    this.elementRef.current.focus();
  }
  
  render() {
    return (
      <Wrapper>
        ...
        
        <input 
          ref={this.elementRef}
          type="text" 
          onChange={this.props.changed} 
          value={this.props.name} 
        />
      </Wrapper>
    ); 
  }
};

Refs and Functional Components

For further information on how to refs can be emulated in functional components, see the discussion on useRef(), in the React Hook section below.

*Further Information

https://reactjs.org/docs/refs-and-the-dom.html

The Context API is used to pass state between objects when intervening objects have no interest in the state (e.g. passing a property to a great-grandchild).

First we create a globally available javascript object, e.g.:

context/auth-context.js

import Read from 'react';

const authContext = React.createContext({
  auth: false, 
  login: () => {}
});

export default authContext;

Then, in the parent component, the components (or parents of the components) that need to receive the context are wrapped in a <AuthContext.Provider /> element, in the render() method:

App.js

import AuthContext 
        from 'context/auth-context';

class App extends Component {
  constructor(props) {
    super(props);
    
    this.state = {
      persons: [
        { id: 'asfa1', name: 'Max' },
        { id: 'vasdf1', name: 'Manu' },
        { id: 'asdf11', name: 'Stephanie' }
      ],
      auth: false
    }
  }

  loginHandler = () => {
    this.setState( { auth: true } );
  };

  render() {
  
    persons = (
      <Persons 
        persons={this.state.persons}
        isAuthenticated={this.state.auth}
      />
    );
  
    return (
      <Wrapper>
        { /* components not interested in 
             context go outside tags */ }

        <AuthContext.Provider 
          value={ 
            {
              authenticated: this.state.auth, 
              login: this.loginHandler
            } 
          } 
        >
         { /* components interested in 
              context go between tags */ }
         
         <Cockpit />
         {persons}

        </AuthContext.Provider>
      </Wrapper>
    );
  }
}

And finally, in the components that need to access the context, the relevant elements in the render() method are wrapped in a <AuthContext.Consumer /> element:

Person.js (inherits context from Persons.js)

import AuthContext 
        from 'context/auth-context';

class Person extends Component {

  render() {
    return (
      <Wrapper>
        <AuthContext.Consumer>
          {(context) => {
              context.auth ? 
                <p>Authenticated!</p> : 
                <p>Please log in</p>
            }
          }
        </AuthContext.Consumer> 
        
        <p>{this.props.children}</p>
      </Wrapper>
    );
  }
}

Cockpit.js

import AuthContext from 'context/auth-context';

const Cockpit = (props) => {

  render() {
    return (
      <Wrapper>
        <h1>{props.title}</h1>
      
        <AuthContext.Consumer>
          {(context) => {
              <button onClick={context.login}>
                Log in
              </button>
            }
          }
        </AuthContext.Consumer>
      </Wrapper>
    );
  }
}

contextType (class components only)

For class components, a more elegant approach, which also allows the context to be accessed outside of the render() method, can be used.

By creating a static reference to the context called contextType this makes the context accessible anywhere within the class using this.context.

Person.js

import AuthContext 
        from 'context/auth-context';

class Person extends Component {

  static contextType = AuthContext;
  
  componentDidMount() {
    console.log(this.context.auth);
    console.log(this.context.login);
  }
  
  render() {
    return (
      <Wrapper>
        {
          this.context.auth ? 
            <p>Authenticated!</p> : 
            <p>Please log in</p>
        }
        
        <p>{this.props.children}</p>
      </Wrapper>
    );
  }

Context and Functional Components

For further information on how to access context in functional components, see the useContext() discussion, in the React Hook section below.

Further Information

https://reactjs.org/docs/context.html

List items must always have a key property. Note that using index as the key is not recommended, since it is an intrinsic part of the list, rather than part of the objects in the list.

deleteHandler = (personIndex) => {
  // create copy of array 
  // before manipulating it.
  const persons = [...this.state.persons];
  persons.splice(personIndex, 1);
  this.setState({persons: persons});
}

render() {
  // create list of persons using map()
  return this.state.persons.map(
    (person, index) => {
      return <Person 
        click={() => this.deleteHandler(index)}
        name={person.name} 
        age={person.age}
        key={person.id} />
    }
  );
}

Conditional statements take advantage of the fact that you can inject javascript into jsx using single curly braces {}.
Having said that, inside jsx, only ternary expressions are available (test ? a : b).

import React, { Component } from 'react';
import Town from 'Town';

class App extends Component {
  togglePersonsHandler = () => {
    const doesShow = this.state.showPersons;
    this.setState({showPersons: !doesShow});
  }

  render() {
    return (
      <div>
        { this.state.showPersons ? 
          <div>
            ...
          </div> : null
        }
      </div>
    );
  };
}

Alternatively, the following is a more elegant (and recommended) approach:

import React, { Component } from 'react';
import Town from 'Town';

class App extends Component {
  togglePersonsHandler = () => {
    const doesShow = this.state.showPersons;
    this.setState({showPersons: !doesShow});
  }

  render() {
    let persons = null;
    
    if (this.state.showPersons) {
      persons = (
          <div>
            ...
          </div> 
      )
    }
    
    return (
      <div>
        {persons}
      </div>
    );
  };
}

Event Handlers

The following is an example of a basic implementation of an event handler:

class App extends Component {

  // naming convention: 
  // [verb] + [noun] + "Handler"
  // ([noun] + [verb] + "Handler")
  switchNameHandler = () => {
    console.log('Was clicked!');
  }
  
  render() {
    return (
      <button 
        onClick={this.switchNameHandler}>
          Switch Name
      </button>
    );
  }
}

Note that we only register a reference to the event handler (this.switchNameHandler) with the event, rather than registering it as a method (this.switchNameHandler()). If it were registered as a method, it would be invoked immediately upon registration (due to the ()), rather than waiting until the event is triggered.

If you need to pass the event handler to a child component (which is a common use case), the handler is registered as a property of the child component:

  render() {
    return (
      <Person 
        name={this.state.persons[1].name} 
        age={this.state.persons[1].age} 
        click={this.switchNameHandler} />
    );
  }

If you need to pass a value to the event handler, there are two approaches:

The bind() method.
An anonymous function.

bind() method

By calling the bind() method on the handler, a value can be passed as an argument.

switchNameHandler = (newName) => {
  this.setState( {
    persons: [
      { name: 'Fred', age: 40 },
      { name: newName, age: 35 },
      { name: 'Barney', age: 38 },
    ],
  } );
}

render() {
  return (
    <button 
      onClick={
        this.switchNameHandler.bind(
          this, 'Betty'
        )
      }>Switch Name</button>
  );
}

Anonymous function

render() {
  return (
    <button 
      onClick={
        () => this.switchNameHandler('Betty')
      }>Switch Name</button>
  );
}

Note that in this case () must be added to the event handler, since we are registering a reference to the anonymous function, rather than the event handler itself. This means that we can pass data to the event handler.

Of the two approaches, the bind() method is generally the most efficient, so it is recommended to use this rather than the anonymous function.

Two-way binding means that when something in the browser changes something in the data store, that change is immediately reflected in the browser.

To achieve this, in addition to passing an event handler to the child, which allows the child to trigger an update of the state, the child also receives the updated state via props.

In the following example, the sequence of actions is:

App renders Person while passing it the state (via props) and a nameChangedHandler event handler.
Person renders props.name and registers the nameChangedHandler event handler with the onChange event for the <input>field.
The <input> field in Person is updated by the user, triggering the onChange event.
The nameChangedHandler receives the updated element (i.e. <input>) via event.target, and updates the state with the value of value.
App then renders Person again, passing it the updated state.
Person renders the updated props.name.
And the cycle repeats...

App.js

class App extends Component {

  nameChangedHandler = (event) => {
    this.setState( {
      persons: [
        { name: 'Fred', age: 40 },
        { name: event.target.value, age: 35 },
        { name: 'Barney', age: 38 },
      ],
    } );
  }
  
  render() {
    return (
      <Person 
        name={this.state.persons[1].name} 
        age={this.state.persons[1].age} 
        click={this.switchNameHandler}
        changed={this.nameChangedHandler} />
    );
  } 
}

Person.js

const person = (props) => {
  return (
    <div>
      <p>{props.name}</p>
      <input 
        type="text" 
        onChange={props.changed} 
        value={props.name}/>
    </div>
  )
};

Preventing Event Propagation

To prevent an event being propagated, e.g. preventing a form a being submitted when Submit is clicked, or preventing a link being followed when the link is clicked, use event.preventDefault().

For example:

  submitNameHandler = (event) => {
    event.preventDefault();
    // this event will not be propagated further
  };
  
  render() {
    return (
      <div>
        <form>
          <input type="text" name="name" placeholder="Your name" />
          <button onClick={this.submitNameHandler}>Submit</button>
        </form>
      </div>
    );
  }

There are several approaches to styling React pages:

Inline
Stylesheets
Dynamic
Radium
styled-components
CSS modules

Inline

This means that the styles are added to tags in the render() method using the inline style property. In this case, the styles are scoped to the component.

class App extends Component {
  render() {
    const style = {
      backgroundColor: '#fff',
      width: '60%',
      border: '1px solid #eee',
      boxShadow: '0 px 3px #ccc',
      cursor: 'pointer'
    };
    
    return (
      <div style={style}>
        ...
      </div> 
    );
  } 
}

Note that there are 3 differences between this approach and standard CSS syntax:

Hypenated names are not supported, so background-colorbecomes backgroundColor.
Properties are separated by commas, rather than semi-colons.
Property values are enclosed in single quotes.

Some CSS features are quite difficult to implement using this approach (e.g. :hover).

Stylesheets

There are two important things to be aware of when using an imported stylesheet in React:

CSS class names for tags are identified using className not class (because "html" in React is actually JSX, where class already has a different meaning).
Imported CSS is globally scoped, so implementing a style for button, for example, will affect every button in the app.

Person.css

.Person {
  background-color: #fff;
  width: 60%;
  border: 1px solid #eee;
  box-shadow: 0 px 3px #ccc;
  cursor: pointer;
}

Person.js

import './Person.css';

const person = (props) => {
  return (
    <div className="Person">
      ...
    </div>
  )
};

Dynamic

Dynamic-styling essentially means using JSX features to replace the style identifiers with variables that can be generated on the fly.

App.css

.App {
  text-align: center;
}

.red {
  color: red;
}

.bold {
  font-weight: bold;
}

App.js

class App extends Component {
  render() {
    const style = {
      backgroundColor: '#fff'
    };
    
    // dynamically change backgroundColor
    if (this.state.showPersons) {
      style.backgroundColor: 'green';
    }
    
    // dynamically change text
    const classes = [];
    if (this.state.persons.length <= 2) {
      classes.push('red'); // ['red']
    }
    if (this.state.persons.length <= 1) {
      classes.push('bold'); // ['red', 'bold']
    }
    
    return (
      <div className={classes.join(' ')}>
        <button style={style}>Click Me!</button>
        ...
      </div> 
    );
  } 
}

Radium

Radium allows inline styles to be used with pseudo-selectors and media queries. It is an example of a Higher Order Component.

Install: npm install radium;
Import: import Radium from 'radium';

To use Radium, wrap the component with Radium when exporting:

export default Radium(App);

And wrap the entire App with <StyleRoot> tags:

App.js

import Radium, { StyleRoot } from 'radium';

class App extends Component {
  render() {
    return (
      <StyleRoot>
        <div>
          <Person />
          <Person />
          <Person />
        </div>
      </StyleRoot>
    )
  }
}

Person.js

import Radium from 'radium';

const person = (props) => {
  const style= {
    backgroundColor: 'green',
    color: 'white',
    cursor: 'pointer',
    
    // support for :hover and 
    // @media enabled by Radium
    
    ':hover': {       
      backgroundColor: 'lightgreen'
      color: 'black'
    },
    '@media (min-width: 500px)': {
      width: '450px';
    }
  };
  
  if (props.showPersons) {
    style[':hover'] = {
      backgroundColor: 'salmon'
      color: 'black'
    };
  }
  
  return (
    <div style={style}>
      ...
    </div>
  )
};

export default Radium(Person);

styled-components

See: https://styled-components.com/

Install: npm install styled-components;
Import: import styled from 'styled-components';
Syntax: const Button = styled.button`[css styles]`;

This syntax is an example of using tagged template literals.

All styled methods return a React component.

Person.js

import styled from 'styled-components';

const StyledDiv = styled.div``
  background-color: ${props => props.alt ?
                            'red' : 'green'};
  color: white;
  cursor: pointer;

  &:hover {
    background-color: lightgreen;
    color: black;
  }

  @media (min-width: 500px) {
    width: '450px';
  }
``

const person = (props) => {
  return (
    <StyledDiv alt={props.showPersons}>
      ...
    </StyledDiv>
  )
};

export default Person;

CSS modules

The advantage of CSS modules is that they allow you to put styles in CSS files but ensure they are scoped to the current component.

Assuming you are using v2 or higher of create-react-app, you basically just need to move your CSS to files with a .module.css extension and then import the styles as an object.

When the .module.css file is imported into a component, the classes are assigned random names, which means that, as long as they are accessed from the styles object, they are only accessible in the current component.

If you do want a CSS class with global scope, you can prefix it with :global (e.g. :global .Post { ... })

MyComponent.module.css

.myStyle {
  color: #fff
}

MyComponent.js

import React from 'react'
import styles from 'MyComponent.module.css'

export default () => (
  <div className={styles.myStyle}>
    We are styled!
  </div>)

For further details about enabling CSS modules, see here:

https://stackoverflow.com/questions/50234890/how-to-use-css-modules-with-create-react-app

For further details about CSS modules in general, see here:

https://github.com/css-modules/css-modules

ErrorBoundary

Use the ErrorBoundary component to catch errors thrown by components.

Caveat: ErrorBoundary does not work in event handlers; in this case use try/catch

import React, { Component } from 'react';

class ErrorBoundary extends Component {
  constructor(props) {
    super(props);
    this.state = {
      hasError: false,
      message: ''  
    }
  }

  // Can be used for both client- and 
  // server-side.
  // Is called in "render phase" when the 
  // DOM has not yet been updated.
  // Should be used for rendering a 
  // fallback UI.
  static getDerivedStateFromError(error) {
    // Update state so the next render will 
    // show the fallback UI.
    return { hasError: true };
  }
  
  // Can only be used on the client-side.
  // Is called during the "commit phase" 
  // when the DOM has already been updated.
  // Should be used for something like 
  // error reporting.
  componentDidCatch = (error, info) => {
    this.setState(
      {
        hasError: true, 
        message: error
      }
    );
    //logStackToService(info.componentStack);
  }
  
  render() {
    if (this.state.hasError) {
      return <h1>{this.state.message}</h1>;
    }

    return this.props.children;
  }
}

export default ErrorBoundary;

Usage:

<ErrorBoundary>
  <MyWidget />
</ErrorBoundary>

try/catch

For imperative code, use try/catch:

try {
  showButton();
} catch (error) {
  // ...
}

withErrorHandler() HOC

For web communication using Axios, wrap the components that handle the request and response in an HOC that intercepts any errors messages and handles them appropriately:

const withErrorHandler = (WrappedComponent, axios) => {
  return class extends Component {
    state = {
      error: null,
    };

    /* Add interceptors before component is loaded 
      (so that any errors during loading can be handled) */
    UNSAFE_componentWillMount() {
      // When a request is submitted, set the error state to null
      this.reqInterceptor = axios.interceptors.request.use((req) => {
        this.setState({ error: null });
        return req;
      });
      
      /* When a response is received and it includes an error, 
         set the error state to be the error object */
      this.resInterceptor = axios.interceptors.response.use(
        (res) => res,  // '(res) => res' indicates that 'res' should be returned
        (error) => {
          this.setState({ error: error });
        }
      );
    }

    /* Remove the interceptors when the component is destroyed,
       to avoid unnecessary handling of web communications */
    componentWillUnmount() {
      axios.interceptors.request.eject(this.reqInterceptor);
      axios.interceptors.response.eject(this.resInterceptor);
    }

    render() {
      return (
        <Wrapper>
          {/* if there is an error, display it */}
          <ErrorMessage show={this.state.error}>
            {this.state.error ? this.state.error.message : null}
          </ErrorMessage>
          
          {/* display the wrapped component */}
          <WrappedComponent {...this.props} />
        </Wrapper>
      );
    }
  };
};

export default withErrorHandler;

The simplest way to query a URL is the fetch() function, which is a feature provided by the browser, and thus does not require additional imports.

However, to test fetch() outside of a browser, the node-fetch module can be used:

Install: npm i node-fetch
Import: `const fetch = require('node-fetch');'

In either case, the fetch() function returns a Promise.

Usage

In its simplest form, the syntax looks like this:

fetch('https://api.kanye.rest')
  .then(response => response.json())
  .then(quote => console.log(quote));

By default fetch() performs a GET request, however this can overridden be passing an options object:

fetch('https://api.kanye.rest', {
  method: 'POST', // 'GET', 'POST', 'PUT', 'DELETE'
  body: JSON.stringify('hello'), // request contents (if any)
  headers: { 'Content-Type': 'application/json' }, // header overrides (if any)
})
  .then(response => response.json())
  .then(quote => console.log(quote));

Note that, generally, the response will need to be converted to either JSON (response.json()) or text (response.text()) before is it useful.

Query Status

HTTP responses are identified by codes, of which 200 (success) and 404 (not found) are probably the most familiar.

Any response in the range 200-299 is identified by response.ok being true.

A more detailed response status can be seen using the following properties:

response.status - this is the familiar HTTP response code, with 200 indicating a successful query.
response.statusText - this provides an additional information about the status.

A failure to connect to the resources (for example, due to network or permission issues) will result in a TypeError rejection.

Error Handling

Errors are handled using catch. An example of this is the following:

fetch('notExists')
  .then(function (response) {
    if (!response.ok) {
      // one option might be to make the promise be rejected
      // by throwing an error
      // throw new Error("Not 2xx response")

      // but a more nuanced approach might be:
      switch (response.status) {
        case 404:
          throw new Error(`Not found: ${response.statusText}`);
        case 500:
          throw new Error(`Server error: ${response.statusText}`);
        default:
          throw new Error(
            `Query failed: ${response.status} - ${response.statusText}`
          );
      }
    } else {
      // go the desired response
    }
  })
  .catch((err) => {
    // some error here
    console.log(`Error: ${err}`);
  });

Further Information

For further details see:

[https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Fetch_API/Using_Fetch](Using Fetch)
[https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/WindowOrWorkerGlobalScope/fetch](Fetch API)

Axios is a promise-based HTTP client that can be integrated with React:

https://github.com/axios/axios
Install: npm install axios
Import: import axios from 'axios';

Example Usage:

HTTP requests are typically placed in componentDidMount() (which is called after initial render) or componentDidUpdate (which is called after subsequent renders) because these can cause side effects. Normally the state is not updated in these functions, however in this case it can be done because the http request/response is asynchronous.

Errors need to be handled. An effective way to do this is to make the default state of a page to be an error state, which is only replaced by content in the event of success. Typically errors would be written to the console, recorded in a log and/or displayed (in a user-friendly manner) to the user.

import React, { Component } from 'react';
import axios from 'axios';

class QueryComponent extends Component {
  state = {
    posts: []
    error: false
  }

  // called after render
  componentDidMount () {
    // get() returns a Promise (because query is asynchronous)
    axios.get('http://jsonplaceholder.typicode.com/posts')
      .then(response => {
        const firstFourPosts = response.data.slice(0, 4);
        this.setState({posts:firstFourPosts});
      })       
      .catch(error => {
        this.setState({ error: true });
        console.log(error);
        log(error);
      });
  } 
  
  // called when button clicked
  postDataHandler = () => {
    const data = {
      title: this.state.title,
      body: this.state.content,
      author: this.state.author,
    };

    axios
      .post("http://jsonplaceholder.typicode.com/posts", data)
      .then(response => {
        console.log(response);
      })       
      .catch(error => {
        this.setState({ error: true });
        console.log(error);
        log(error);
      });
  };

  // called when button clicked
  deleteDataHandler = () => {
    axios
      .delete("http://jsonplaceholder.typicode.com/posts/" + this.props.id)
      .then(response => {
        console.log(response);
      })       
      .catch(error => {
        this.setState({ error: true });
        console.log(error);
        log(error);
      });   
  };
  
  // called when response received (and state updated)
  render () {
    let posts = <p>Something went wrong!</p>;
    
    if (!this.state.error) {
      posts = this.state.posts.map(post => {
        return (
          <Post 
            key={post.id} 
            title={post.title} 
            author={post.author}
          />
        );
      });
    }

    return (
      <div>
        <section>{posts}</section>
        
        <section>
          ...
          <button 
            onClick={this.postDataHandler}>
              Add Post
          </button>
        </section>

        <section>
          ...
          <button 
            onClick={this.deleteDataHandler}>
              Add Post
          </button>
        </section>
      </div>
    );
  }
}

Interceptors:

Interceptors allow HTTP messages to be intecepted globally (i.e. will be applied to every request sent from, or response received by, the app).

Typical uses are:

adding common headers to requests (e.g. for authorization)
logging responses and requests
error handling
setting a default global config (e.g. setting a global base url)

Interceptors are usually enabled in globally significant components (e.g. index.js).

import axios from 'axios';

// allows urls to be specified as /posts (for example)
axios.defaults.baseURL = 'http://jsonplaceholder.typicode.com'

// allows headers to be edited or inserted for all messages
axios.defaults.headers.common['Authorization'] = 'MY_AUTH_TOKEN';

// allows headers to be edited or inserted for POST messages only
axios.defaults.headers.post['Content-Type'] = 'application/json';

// intercept all requests
axios.interceptors.request.use(request => {
  // edit request here
  // must always return the request
  return request;
}, error => {
  // return an exception that can be caught
  return Promise.reject(error);
});

// intercept all responses
axios.interceptors.response.use(response => {
  // edit response here
  // must always return the response
  return response;
}, error => {
  // return an exception that can be caught
  return Promise.reject(error);
});

It is also possible to set up Axios "instances", which override the global defaults for different parts of the application, e.g.:

axios.js

import axios from 'axios';

// Axios instances overwrite the global defaults
const instance = axios.create({
  baseURL: 'http://jsonplaceholder.typicode.com'
});

instance.defaults.headers.common['Authorization'] = 'AUTH_TOKEN_FROM_INSTANCE';

export default instance;

MyComponent.js

import axios from '../../axios';

// within this component, values in 
// axios.js override the global defaults

...

This example uses Google's Firebase database service, which is a NoSQL database (similar to MongoDB):

https://console.firebase.google.com/

In general, Firebase is a good choice for smaller scale or startup applications since it provides a highly scaleable, hosted database solution. The chief downsides are the cost and the limitation that you cannot host the data layer.

For a more complex solution, or one that must be hosted internally, https://www.mongodb.com/ is generally considered the go-to choice.

Firebase

Firebase has offers two types of database:

Realtime Database
- Data is stored as one large JSON tree which makes it easier to store simple data but harder to organize complex, hierarchical data at scale.
Firestore
- Data is stored as documents arranged in collections. Simple data is stored in documents, which is easy and similar to the way data is stored in JSON. Complex, hierarchical data is conveniently organized at scale using subcollections within documents. Cloud Firestore requires less denormalization and data flattening.

In general, Realtime Database is sufficient for simple apps, but Firestore is recommended for larger, more complex ones.

Accessing the database

In this example, a Realtime Database is used with a structure similar to the following:

- my-app
   - items
      - item1
      - item2
      - item3
   - user-requests
      - user-request1
      - user-request2
      - user-request3

Database access is performed using Axios:

db.js

import axios from 'axios';

const instance = axios.create({
    baseURL: 'https://my-app.firebaseio.com/'
});

export default instance;

MyApp.js

import db from 'db';

/* Class component so that we can use lifecycle methods */
class MyApp extends Component {
  state = {
    items: null,
    requesting: false,
    loading: false,
    error: false,
  };
  
  /* Query database after component is loaded */
  componentDidMount() {
    db
      .get('/items.json') /* .json suffix is required by Firebase */
      .then((response) => {
        console.log(response);
        this.setState({ myItems: response.data });
      })
      .catch((error) => {
        console.log(error);
        this.setState({ error: true });
      });
  }

  ...
  
  /* Set state as "requesting" so that a confirmation dialog
     can be displayed to the user */
  userRequestHandler = () => {
    // must be an arrow function to use 'this' in an event handler
    this.setState({ requesting: true });
  }
  
  /* User has confirmed request, so set state to "loading" 
     and send the request to the database */
  userRequestConfirmedHandler = () => {
  
    this.setState({ loading: true });

    // package the request up as a simple object
    const userRequest = {
      items: this.state.items,
      user: {
        name: 'Fred Flintstone',
        address: {
          street: '345 Cave Stone Road',
          zipCode: '41351',
          town: 'Bedrock',
        },
        email: '[email protected]',
      }
    };
    
    // post the request to the database
    db
      .post('/user-requests.json', order)
      .then((response) => {
        console.log(response);
        this.setState({ loading: false, requesting: false });
      })
      .catch((error) => {
        // don't need to set 'error: true' here because error will
        // be handled by withErrorHandler() wrapper
        console.log(error);
        this.setState({ loading: false, requesting: false });
      });
  };
  
  ... 
  
  render() {
    let userRequestSummary = null;

    // while waiting for a result, display a spinner, or an error message if appropriate
    let result = this.state.error ? <p>Items cannot be loaded!</p> : <Spinner />;

    // if items have been selected
    if (this.state.items) {
      // display the results of the user's selection and give the user
      // the option to submit this to the database to be saved.
      result = (
        <Wrapper>
          <Result items={this.state.items} />
          <RequestControls requested={this.userRequestHandler} />
        </Wrapper>
      );
      
      // if the state is "requesting" display a summary of the user's
      // request so that they can be confirm they really want to submit this.
      userRequestSummary = (
        <UserRequestSummary
          show={this.state.requesting}
          items={this.state.items}
          userRequestConfirmed={this.userRequestConfirmedHandler}
        />
      );
    }

    // if state is "loading", display a spinner while waiting
    // for a result
    if (this.state.loading) {
      userRequestSummary = <Spinner />;
    }

    return (
      <Wrapper>
        {userRequestSummary}
        {result}
      </Wrapper>
    );
  }  
}

export default withErrorHandler(MyApp, db);

Validation of Email Addresses

Some things to consider when validating email addresses:

The purpose of validating an email address is to confirm that the user didn't accidently enter an invalid value (such as their name). It will be unlikely to catch someone doing this on purpose.
There is no such thing as the perfect regex for email addresses because email addresses vary so widely. The only way to truly confirm an email address is to send it an email with a verification link.
It is easy to disable javascript validation, so client-side verification cannot be relied on (except as a first pass). Verification also needs to be done on the server.
It is generally best to use the simplest "good enough" regex for validating email addresses. A regex such as /^\S+@\S+$/i will catch most user errors but will fail for addresses like "me@[email protected]", which are valid email addresses. If edge cases like these are a concern, it is better to skip the regex and just go straight to the "email with a link" step.

Implementation

Add validationRules, valid and touched values to the form state:

  state = {
    orderForm: {
      name: {
        elementType: 'input',
        elementConfig: {
          type: 'text',
          placeholder: 'Your Name',
        },
        value: '',
        validationRules: {
          required: true,
        },
        valid: false,
        touched: false
      },
      zipCode: {
        elementType: 'input',
        elementConfig: {
          type: 'text',
          placeholder: 'Zip Code',
        },
        value: '',
        validationRules: {
          required: true,
          minLength: 5,
          maxLength: 5,
        },
        valid: false,
        touched: false
      }
      deliverymethod: {
        elementType: 'select',
        elementConfig: {
          options: [
            { value: 'fastest', displayValue: 'Fastest' },
            { value: 'cheapest', displayValue: 'Cheapest' },
          ],
        },
        value: '',
        validation: {}, // no rules
        valid: true, // always valid
        touched: false
      },
    },
    formIsValid: false, 
  };

Add function to validate values against rules:

  checkValidity(value, rules) {
    let isValid = true;

    if (rules) {
      if (rules.required) {
        isValid = value.trim() !== '' && isValid;
      }

      if (rules.minLength) {
        isValid = value.length >= rules.minLength && isValid;
      }

      if (rules.maxLength) {
        isValid = value.length <= rules.maxLength && isValid;
      }

      if (rules.isEmail) {
        const EMAIL_REGEX = /^\S+@\S+$/i;
        isValid = EMAIL_REGEX.test(value) && isValid;
      }

      if (rules.isNumeric) {
        const NUMBER_REGEX = /^\d+$/;
        isValid = NUMBER_REGEX.test(value) && isValid;
      }
    }

    return isValid;
  }

As the form is updated, check the validity of the entered values, and the form as a whole.

Also indicate that the user has interacted with the element.

  inputChangedHandler = (event, inputIdentifier) => {

    // create copy of order form state
    const updatedOrderForm = { ...this.state.orderForm };

    // create copy of order form element state
    const updatedFormElement = { ...updatedOrderForm[inputIdentifier] };

    // update the order form element value
    updatedFormElement.value = event.target.value;
    
    // check that form is valid
    updatedFormElement.valid = this.checkValidity(
      updatedFormElement.value,
      updatedFormElement.validationRules
    );
    
    // indicate that the user has interacted with the element
    updatedFormElement.touched = true;
    
    // update the order form with the updated order form element
    updatedOrderForm[inputIdentifier] = updatedFormElement;

    // check if all elements of form are valid
    let formIsValid = true;
    for (const inputIdentifier in updatedOrderForm) {
      formIsValid = updatedOrderForm[inputIdentifier].valid && formIsValid;
    }

    // update state with new order form
    this.setState({ orderForm: updatedOrderForm, formIsValid: formIsValid });
  };

Add the following properties to each Input element in the form:

shouldValidate - avoid validating element if not necessary
invalid - flag to indicate current state of the entered value
errorMessage - message to be displayed if validation fails
touched - flag to indicate user has interacted with element
changed - handler for validation of element

Also add a disabled property to the Button, to prevent the user submitting an invalid form (note: because we use a custom Button, we need to pass the disabled property to the underlying button element).

  render() {
    
    ...
    
    let form = (
      <form onSubmit={this.orderHandler}>
        {formElementsArray.map((formElement) => (
          <Input
            key={formElement.id}
            elementType={formElement.config.elementType}
            elementConfig={formElement.config.elementConfig}
            value={formElement.config.value}
            shouldValidate={formElement.config.validation}
            invalid={!formElement.config.valid}
            errorMessage="Please enter a valid {formElement.config.elementType}"
            touched={formElement.config.touched}
            changed={(event) => this.inputChangedHandler(event, formElement.id)}
          />
        ))}
        <Button btnType="Success" disabled={!this.state.formIsValid}>SUBMIT</Button>
      </form>
    );

    return (
      <div>
        {form}
      </div>
    );
  }

Button.js

const Button = (props) => (
  <button
    disabled={props.disabled}
    className={[classes.Button, classes[props.btnType]].join(' ')}
    onClick={props.clicked}
  >
    {props.children}
  </button>
);

Button.module.css

...

.Button:disabled {
  color: #ccc;
  cursor: not-allowed;
}

...

In Input.js, for each element, add an Invalid style class that can be enabled if validation fails (and user has interacted with the element). Also, optionally, add a validation error message, with it's own ValidationError style class.

Finally, add an onChange property that will do the validation as the user updates the element.

import classes from './Input.module.css';

const Input = (props) => {
  let inputElement = null;

  // add the Invalid class to the styling if
  // validation fails
  const inputClasses = [classes.InputElement];
  if (props.invalid && props.shouldValidate && props.touched) {
    inputClasses.push(classes.Invalid);
  }

  switch (props.elementType) {
    case 'input':
      inputElement = (
        <input
          className={inputClasses.join(' ')}
          {...props.elementConfig}
          value={props.value}
          onChange={props.changed}
        />
      );
      break;
      
    ...other cases...
  
  }
  
  let validationError = null;
  if (props.invalid && props.shouldValidate && props.touched) {
    validationError = <p className={classes.ValidationError}>{props.errorMessage}</p>;
  }
  
  return (
    <div className={classes.Input}>
      {inputElement}
      {validationError}
    </div>
  );
};

Input.module.css

.Input {
  width: 100%;
  padding: 10px;
  box-sizing: border-box;
}

...other classes...

.Invalid {
  border: 1px solid red;
  background-color: #fda49a;
}

.ValidationError {
  color: red;
  margin: 5px 0;
}

Further Reading:

These instructions relate to an installation using webpack (the default type generated by create-react-app)

IMPORTANT: Environment variables for React applications are only referenced during the build process (e.g. when running npm start); the build inserts their values into the code during compilation. The variables are not referenced at runtime (i.e. the running application does not pick up the values on-the-fly). This means that the variables are not secure; their values are hard-wired into the code where they can be accessed by the user (e.g. you cannot use an environment variable to hide a password).

Built-In Environment Variables

Built-In environment variables for React applications are defined in an env.js file. This file can be found in either ./config/ or in ./node_modules/react-scripts/.

The variables are defined in the getClientEnvironment() function, and can be accessed in the code using process.env.[VAR], e.g. process.env.NODE_ENV.

Some of the more commonly used variables are:

NODE_ENV: When npm start is run, it is always equal to 'development'; when npm test is run, it is always equal to 'test'; when npm run build is run, it is always equal to 'production'. NODE_ENV cannot be overridden manually (to avoid accidently deploying a slow development build in production).
PUBLIC_URL: Contains the public URL of the app. In theory this can be used to identify the correct path to static assets (such as images), however this is not recommended (these should really be imported into the code). It can, however, be used as a fall-back.

A full list of built-in variables may be found here:

https://create-react-app.dev/docs/advanced-configuration/

Custom Environment Variables

Custom environment variables must be prefixed with REACT_APP_ (to avoid clashing with the pre-existing environment of the host). For example, REACT_APP_NOT_SECRET_CODE will be exposed in the code as process.env.REACT_APP_NOT_SECRET_CODE.

Temporarily environment variables can be set in the shell session in which the application is being run, e.g. on Windows: set "REACT_APP_NOT_SECRET_CODE=abcdef" && npm start

Alternatively, custom variables are typically placed in a .env file, in the root of the project, however there are several other possible locations:

.env: Default.
.env.local: Local overrides. This file is loaded for all environments except test.
.env.development, .env.test, .env.production: Environment-specific settings.
.env.development.local, .env.test.local, .env.production.local: Local overrides of environment-specific settings.

Files on the left have more priority than files on the right:

npm start: .env.development.local, .env.development, .env.local, .env
npm run build: .env.production.local, .env.production, .env.local, .env
npm test: .env.test.local, .env.test, .env (note .env.local is missing)

These variables will act as the defaults if the machine does not explicitly set them.

Accessing Environment Variables In HTML

Environment variables can be embedded in HTML in the following manner: <title>%REACT_APP_WEBSITE_NAME%</title>

Using Existing Variables

Existing variables (i.e. those defined in the current session, or define previously in a .env file) can be referenced in a .env file in the following manner:

REACT_APP_VERSION=$npm_package_version or REACT_APP_VERSION=${npm_package_version}
DOMAIN=www.example.com and REACT_APP_FOO=$DOMAIN/foo

To implement routing, the first thing step is to, in either App.js or index.js files, wrap the part of the app that supports routing with the BrowserRouter component:

index.js

...etc...
import { BrowserRouter } from 'react-router-dom';

...etc...

ReactDOM.render(
  <React.StrictMode>
    <BrowserRouter>
      <App />
    </BrowserRouter>
  </React.StrictMode>,
  document.getElementById('root')
);

...etc...

The next step is to add the Route component to components where the contents should be dependent on the path, e.g.:

import React, { Component } from "react";
import { Route } from "react-router-dom";
import Posts from "Posts";
import NewPost from "NewPost";

class Blog extends Component {
  render() {
    return (
      <div className="Blog">
        <header>
          <nav>
            <ul>
              <li>
                <a href="/">Home</a>
              </li>
              <li>
                <a href="/new-post">New Post</a>
              </li>
            </ul>
          </nav>
        </header>
        
        {/* path = the relative path to handle 
            exact = by default, the component will match paths that 
                    start with the path value; the property forces 
                    exact matching
            render = the function to be called if the path matches
            component = the component to be called if the path matches */}
        <Route path="/" exact render={() => <h1>Home</h1>} />
        <Route path="/" exact component={Posts} />
        <Route path="/new-post" component={NewPost} />
        
        {/* The Route component can reference the same path
            multiple times in the same page */}
        <Route path="/" render={() => <h1>Home 2</h1>} />
      </div>
    );
  }
}

The render property of the Route component is only really used in two use-cases:

Making small updates to a page, such as simple messages or images (e.g. render={() => <h1>Hello!</h1>})
Enabling props to be passed to a component (e.g. render={ () => <ContactData address={this.state.address} />})

Generally, and particularly for larger sections, the component property should be preferred.

Parsing the Route

Often it is not possible to hardwire a specific path in the route. In these cases, a route parameter can be used. A route parameter is effectively a wildcard that copies a section of the link into a variable.

An example might be:

<Route path="/:id/:title" component={MyComponent} />

The crucial features are the : delimiters. These indicate that everything following them (until the next '/') should be copied into the specified variable. So, in the above case, the path /4/Lessons would be parsed as id = "4"; title = "Lessons".

The parsed variables are passed to the linked component (MyComponent) and can be accessed using this.props.match.params.id; this.props.match.params.title.

Note that Route components are evaluated in sequence, so care must be taken with the order of parsing to ensure that the results are as expected, e.g.:

  {/* test 1: if matches "/" exactly */}
  <Route path="/" exact component={Posts} />

  {/* test 2: if matches any route that begins with "/new-post" */}
  <Route path="/new-post" exact component={NewPost} />
  
  {/* test 3: if matches any route that begins with "/";
      anything following "/" will be assigned to the "id" 
      property*/}
  <Route path="/:id" exact component={FullPost} />

In this case, both test 2 and test 3 will match /new-post, so both of their components will be displayed.

An alternative approach is to use the Switch component. If Route elements are placed inside a Switch element, only the first match succeeds, e.g.:

  {/* test 1: if matches "/" exactly */}
  <Route path="/" exact component={Posts} />

  <Switch>
    {/* test 2: if matches any route that begins with "/new-post" */}
    <Route path="/new-post" exact component={NewPost} />

    {/* test 3: else if matches any route that begins with "/";
        anything following "/" will be assigned to the "id" 
        property*/}
    <Route path="/:id" exact component={FullPost} />
  </Switch>

In this case, only test 2 will match /new-post, since test 3 will not be called.

Parsing the Query/Search Parameters

To extract search (also referred to as "query") parameters (i.e. ?something=somevalue, or <Link to={ { pathname: '/my-path', search: '?start=5' } }, props.location.search is used, however this only returns something like ?start=5.

To convert this string to a more useful key-value pair, use URLSearchParams, e.g.

componentDidMount() {
    const query = new URLSearchParams(this.props.location.search);
    for (let param of query.entries()) {
        console.log(param); // yields ['start', '5']
    }
}

URLSearchParams is a built-in object, shipping with vanilla JavaScript. It returns an object, which exposes the entries() method. entries() returns an Iterator - basically a construct which can be used in a for...of... loop (as shown above).

When looping through query.entries(), you get arrays where the first element is the key name (e.g. start ) and the second element is the assigned value (e.g. 5 ).

Parsing the Fragment/Hash Parameter

The hash, or fragment, of a path is passed using the following:

<Link to="/my-path#start-position">Go to Start</Link>

or,

<Link 
    to={ {
        pathname: '/my-path',
        hash: 'start-position'
    } }
    >Go to Start</Link>

This value can be accessed using props.location.hash.

If a link is specified using the familiar <a href=""> element, this will force the entire page to be re-fetched from the server. Typically this is not desirable; in modern web apps it is more typical to only refresh those sections of the page that have changed.

To avoid the full page refresh, the Link component is used:

import React, { Component } from "react";
import Posts from "Posts";
import NewPost from "NewPost";

class Blog extends Component {
  render() {
    return (
      <div className="Blog">
        <header>
          <nav>
            <ul>
              <li>
                {/* 'to' can be a simple string */}
                <Link to="/">Home</Link>
              </li>
              <li>
                {/* 'to' can also be a javascript object */}
                <Link to={ {
                  pathname: '/new-post',
                  hash: '#submit',
                  search: '?quick-submit=true'
                } }>New Post</Link>
              </li>
            </ul>
          </nav>
        </header>
        
        <Route path="/" exact component={Posts} />
        <Route path="/new-post" component={NewPost} />
      </div>
    );
  }
}

Note: Link paths are always absolute, regardless of whether "/new-post" or "new-post" is used. In the latter case, this will be converted to "/new-post".

If you want to use a relative path, you need to build this dynamically based on knowledge of the current path, e.g. if you are currently at /posts and want to go to /posts/new-post, you would construct a path using pathname: currentUrl + '/new-post'.

If the current path was accessed via a Link, the current path can be accessed using the local props (in this case, this.props.match.url).

If the props of a component that has been called from a Link are examined, it can be seen that a wealth of information is available for use in the component:

class NewPost extends Component {
  ...
  componentDidMount() {
    console.log(this.props);
  }  
  ...
}

{history: {…}, location: {…}, match: {…}, staticContext: undefined}
  history:
    action: "PUSH"
    block: ƒ block(prompt)
    createHref: ƒ createHref(location)
    go: ƒ go(n)
    goBack: ƒ goBack()
    goForward: ƒ goForward()
    length: 21
    listen: ƒ listen(listener)
    location: {pathname: "/new-post", hash: "#submit", search: "?quick-submit=true", key: "5mpy2d"}
    push: ƒ push(path, state)
    replace: ƒ replace(path, state)
    __proto__: Object
  location:
    hash: "#submit"
    key: "5mpy2d"
    pathname: "/new-post"
    search: "?quick-submit=true"
    __proto__: Object
  match:
    isExact: true
    params: {}
    path: "/new-post"
    url: "/new-post"
    __proto__: Object
  staticContext: undefined
  __proto__: Object

However, these extra properties are not passed down, by default, to children of the component.

There are two approaches to passing these properties further down the chain:

...props

One approach is to use the spread operator to add the props to the child components:

  render() {
        return (
          <Post
            key={post.id}
            title={post.title}
            author={post.author}
            {...this.props} 
            {/* or, {this.props.myProp} for a specific property /*}
            clicked={() => this.postSelectedHandler(post.id)}
          />
        );
    }

withRouter() HOC

A more sophisticated approach is to use the withRouter HOC, which, when wrapped around a component, ensures that the component receives the route props.

import React from 'react';
import { withRouter } from 'react-router-dom';

const post = (props) => {
  console.log(props);
  return (
    <article className="Post" onClick={props.clicked}>
      <h1>{props.title}</h1>
      <div className="Info">
        <div className="Author">{props.author}</div>
      </div>
    </article>
  );
};

export default withRouter(post);

An extension of the Link component is the NavLink component. Both components behave exactly the same when it comes to linking, however NavLink also allows styling to be applied to a link. It also enables the correct focus to be maintained, for accessibility.

When NavLink is used in place of Link, the resulting a element is decorated with two new properties:

aria-current="page": this indicates that this is the link for the current page and is chiefly used by screen-readers.
- For further details, see: https://tink.uk/using-the-aria-current-attribute/
class="active": this provides a class that can be used for styling.
- The class name can be changed using the activeClassName property.

e.g. <NavLink to="/">Home</NavLink> translates to <a aria-current="page" class="active" href="/">Home</a>.

Additional NavLink properties include:

activeStyle, which allows inline CSS to be specified as a javascript object
isActive, which indicates that the link should be flagged as the active link (overriding the default).
location, which overrides the current location property.

An example might be:

<NavLink
  {/* the link */}
  to="/user"
  
  {/* inline styling */}
  activeStyle={ {
    background: 'red',
    color: 'white',
  } }
  
  {/* override the search property of the current location */}
  location={ {
    search: '?id=2',
  } }
  
  {/* this link is marked as active if match.isExact is true
      and the current search params contain 'id' (which it
      will do because location.search has been overridden) */}
  isActive={(match, location) => {
    if (!match) {
      return false;
    }
    const searchParams = new URLSearchParams(location.search);
    return match.isExact && searchParams.has('id');
  } }
>
  User
</NavLink>

For further information see here:

https://www.codementor.io/@packt/using-the-link-and-navlink-components-to-navigate-to-a-route-rieqipp42

In the event that navigate must happen in response to some event (rather than directly to user input), the history prop can be used. For example,

  postSelectedHandler = (id) => {
    this.props.history.push({ pathname: '/' + id });
  };
  
  render() {
    return (
      <Post
        key={post.id}
        title={post.title}
        author={post.author}
        clicked={() => this.postSelectedHandler(post.id)}
      />
    );
  }

Routes can be specified anywhere in the app as long as the components fall under the BrowserRoute tags. This means that it is possible for routes to be nested (i.e. a Route calls a component that contains another Route). This can be problematic since all of the routes, no matter where they are located, are still evaluated sequentially. This can lead to a route being "blocked" by a preceding route.

For example:

class Blog extends Component {
  render() {
    return (
      <div className="Blog">
        <Switch>
          {/* test 1: if matches "/" exactly */}
          <Route path="/" exact component={Posts} />

          {/* test 2: else if starts with "/new-post" */}
          <Route path="/new-post" exact component={NewPost} />
        </Switch>
      </div>
    );
  }
}

class Posts extends Component {
  render() {
    return (
      <div className="Posts">
        {/* test 3: if matches any route that begins with "/";
            anything following "/" will be assigned to the "id" 
            property*/}
        <Route path="/:id" exact component={FullPost} />
      </div>
    );
  }
}

In the above case, if the URL /5 is specified, this will never be passed down to the Posts component because Posts is called by the Route in the Blog component, which is only called if the path is exactly /.

One solution would be to simply remove the exact property from the blog Route, so that Posts is always called. However, this will cause the additional problem that the /new-post route will never be called (since the Switch element only allows the first matched Route to pass).

A better solution would be to remove the exact property and change the order of the routes in the Switch element:

  <div className="Blog">
    <Switch>
      {/* test 1: if starts with "/new-post" */}
      <Route path="/new-post" exact component={NewPost} />
      
      {/* test 2: else if starts with "/" */}
      <Route path="/" component={Posts} />
    </Switch>
  </div>

In this case, a URL of /5 will fail test 1 but pass test 2, which in turn will mean that test 3 is called in the Posts component.

However, an issue remains. In the following example, test2 tests for /posts, rather than /:

  <div className="Blog">
    <Switch>
      {/* test 1: if starts with "/new-post" */}
      <Route path="/new-post" exact component={NewPost} />
      
      {/* test 2: else if starts with "/posts" */}
      <Route path="/posts" component={Posts} />
    </Switch>
  </div>

This means that all relevant paths need to be updated to be /posts, including test 3:

  <div className="Posts">
    {/* test 3: if matches any route that begins with "/posts";
        anything following "/posts" will be assigned to the "id" 
        property*/}
    <Route path="/posts/:id" exact component={FullPost} />
  </div>

This is cumbersome, particularly if the Posts component might be moved or re-used elsewhere.

The solution is to get the url dynamically, using the route props:

  <div className="Posts">
    {/* test 3: if matches any route that begins with this.props.match.url;
        anything following this.props.match.url will be assigned to the "id" 
        property*/}
    <Route path={this.props.match.url + '/:id'} exact component={FullPost} />
  </div>

A simple way to redirect a user is to provide duplicate routes, e.g.:

  <div className="Blog">
    <Switch>
      <Route path="/new-post" exact component={NewPost} />
      <Route path="/posts" component={Posts} />
      <Route path="/" component={Posts} />
    </Switch>
  </div>

There is, however, a more elegant solution using the Redirect component:

  <div className="Blog">
    <Switch>
      <Route path="/new-post" exact component={NewPost} />
      <Route path="/posts" component={Posts} />
      <Redirect from="/" to="/posts" />
    </Switch>
  </div>

Note: if used outside of a Switch element, only the to property can be used. This syntax is typically used in conjunction with a condition, e.g.

  render() {
    let redirect = null;
    if (this.state.submitted) {
      redirect = <Redirect to="/posts" />;
    }
    return (
      <div className="NewPost">
        {redirect}
      </div>
    );
  }

Alternative Redirect Using History

An alternative method of redirecting is to push the new page onto the history:

  axios.post('/posts', data).then((response) => {
    this.props.history.push('/posts');
  });

This essentially moves the browser forward, so that subsequently clicking "Back" will take the user to the preceeding page.

This is different from the Redirect component, which actually replaces the current page in the history, so clicking "Back" will effectively take the user two pages back.

This latter behaviour can be reproduced using the history.replace().

A guard is essentially a conditional statement that controls access to a component, such as a Route, or is called in a lifecycle method to prevent access when a component is loaded.

For example:

  <div className="Blog">
    <Switch>
      {this.state.auth ? <Route path="/new-post" exact component={NewPost} /> : null}
      <Route path="/posts" component={Posts} />
      <Redirect from="/" to="/posts" />
    </Switch>
  </div>

Or, alternatively:

class NewPost extends Component {
  componentDidMount() {
    if (notAuth) this.props.history.replace('/posts');
  }
}

An additional solution might be:

ProtectedRoute.js

class ProtectedRoute extends Component {
  render() {
    const { component: Component, ...props } = this.props

    return (
      <Route 
        {...props} 
        render={props => (
          this.state.authenticated ?
            <Component {...props} /> :
            <Redirect to='/login' />
        )} 
      />
    )
  }
}

Blog.js

  <div className="Blog">
    <Switch>
      <ProtectedRoute path="/new-post" exact component={NewPost} />
      <Route path="/posts" component={Posts} />
      <Redirect from="/" to="/posts" />
    </Switch>
  </div>

A crucial concept to understand when using react-router is that components can only be accessed if the developer has chosen to render them; if they are not rendered (for example, because they don't meet some condition), they will be inaccessible.

The simplest way to handle a 404 error (resource not found) is to provide a catch-all Route that handles any case where the path is unknown.

For example:

  // this.state.auth = false;
  
  <div className="Blog">
    <Switch>
      {/* test 1: if starts with "/new-post" and user is authorized to access this */}
      {this.state.auth ? <Route path="/new-post" exact component={NewPost} /> : null}

      {/* test 2: else if starts with "/posts" */}
      <Route path="/posts" component={Posts} />
      
      {/* test 3: else if nothing matched, display an error message */}
      <Route render={() => <h1>Not found</h1>} />
    </Switch>
  </div>

Note that the catch-all Route does not have a path specified, so it will always render if all of the previous routes fail.

Rather than load the entire application when the user first visits the site, it is more efficient (for large applications) to only load the components as the user requests them. This is known as code splitting or lazy loading.

To achieve this, a new HOC is created:

asyncComponent.js

import React, { Component } from 'react';

// importComponent will be a function
// reference that returns a Promise
const asyncComponent = (importComponent) => {

  // function component returns a class component
  return class extends Component {
    // state.component will store the component
    // to be rendered.  Initially this is false.
    state = {
      component: null,
    };

    componentDidMount() {
      // comp will be the component being loaded dynamically
      // state.component is set to comp
      importComponent().then((comp) => {
        this.setState({ component: comp.default });
      });
    }

    render() {
      // get state.component (which could be null)
      const C = this.state.component;

      // if state.component exists, return it (with any props)
      return C ? <C {...this.props} /> : null;
    }
  };
};

export default asyncComponent;

Wherever we want to eventually render the lazily loaded component, we instead import the asyncComponent and initialize it:

Blog.js

import asyncComponent from './asyncComponent';

// This is known as a dynamic import.
// The import statement will only be called 
// when AsyncNewPost is rendered to the screen.
const AsyncNewPost = asyncComponent(() => {
  return import('./NewPost');
});

class Blog extends Component {
  state = {
    auth: true,
  };
  
  ...check auth...
  
  render() {
    return (
        <Switch>
          {this.state.auth ? <Route path="/new-post" exact component={AsyncNewPost} /> : null}
          <Route render={() => <h1>Not Authorized</h1>} />
        </Switch>
      </div>
    );
  }
}

Lazy Loading with React Suspense

At time of writing, this is not supported for server-side apps

Since React 16.6, a new approach to lazy loading was added. There are two parts:

The React.lazy() method - this returns a promise that can be "pending" or "resolved".
The Suspense component - this handles the promise, either rendering a fallback message/spinner if the promise is still pending, or displaying the component if the promise is resolved.

import React, { Component, Suspense } from 'react';
import User from './User';

// When the Posts component is rendered, 
// React.lazy() returns a promise while
// the Posts component is fetched.
const Posts = React.lazy(() => import('./containers/Posts'));

class App extends Component {
  state = { showPosts: false };

  modeHandler = () => {
    this.setState((prevState) => {
      return { showPosts: !prevState.showPosts };
    });
  };

  render() {
    return (
      <React.Fragment>
        <button onClick={this.modeHandler}>Toggle Mode</button>

        {this.state.showPosts ? (
          <Suspense fallback={<div>Loading...</div>}>
            <Posts />
          </Suspense>
        ) : (
          <User />
        )}
      </React.Fragment>
    );
  }
}

export default App;

Redux is not a part of React, however it is a concept/feature that React can take advantage of via the react-redux module. Essentially, the module is wrapping the Redux logic and providing a way to access it in a more React-friendly manner.

So, just to recap, the basic idea behind Redux is that you are taking an initial state and performing one or more actions on it to "reduce" it to a final state.

In both the basic and React versions, the application state is maintained by a "store". You don't need to know the fine details of the store, other than that the state is passed to/from the store as a JavaScript object. The state object is automatically passed into the reducer whenever an action is triggered.

The store is maintained in memory and so is reset if the application is refreshed.

The store is initialized by passing it a reducer (or multiple reducers, if combineReducers is used). The state object is initialized the very first time an action runs using a dummy initial state object.

In React, the store is made accessible to the app using the <Provider /> component.

The reducer contains the logic that actually updates the state/store. Each function in the reducer maps to a similar function in the actions.

Triggering the reducer logic is done using the actions, which essentially just broadcast (i.e. dispatch) an identifier for a particular reducer function, plus the data required by the reducer function. The reducer listens for these dispatches and ensures that the correct reducer function is triggered with the correct data.

The individual React app components are linked to the Redux store using the connect function (provided by react-redux). The connect function serves two purposes:

It exposes the functions that dispatch the actions to the component via the mapDispatchToProps function.
It exposes the current state to the component via the mapStateToProps function.

So, in summary, the app functions like this:

Intialize store with a reducer
Wrap app in <Provider /> tags to make the store accessible
In a component that wishes to update the state:

Map function to actions using mapDispatchToProps
Map local props to state properties using mapStateToProps
Link the map functions to the store using connect function.

When component calls a mapped function, dispatch the related action
When the reducer receives the action and current state, trigger the related reducer function.
The reducer function updates the state, which is returned to the store.
The updated state is exposed to the app via the mapped props.

Redux Lifecycle

A Simple Non-React Redux Example

This example is standalone code; it does not require React.

Install: npm install redux

To run this: node redux-basics.js

redux-basics.js

const redux = require('redux'); // nodejs syntax
const createStore = redux.createStore;

const initialState = {
  counter: 0,
};

// Reducer
const rootReducer = (state = initialState, action) => {
  if (action.type === 'INC_COUNTER') {
    return {
      ...state, // get existing state
      counter: state.counter + 1, // overwrite counter
    };
  }

  if (action.type === 'ADD_COUNTER') {
    return {
      ...state, // get existing state
      counter: state.counter + action.value, // overwrite counter
    };
  }

  return state;
};

// Store
const store = createStore(rootReducer);
console.log(store.getState());

// Subscription
store.subscribe(() => {
  console.log('[Subscription]', store.getState());
});

// Dispatching Action
store.dispatch({ type: 'INC_COUNTER' });
store.dispatch({ type: 'ADD_COUNTER', value: 10 });
console.log(store.getState());

Install: npm install redux
Import: import { createStore, combineReducers, applyMiddleware } from 'redux';
Install: npm install react-redux
Import: import { Provider, connect } from 'react-redux';

There are four main stages when hooking the Store up to a React application:

Import the Reducer
Create the Store using the Reducer
Inject the Store into the App using a Provider (imported from react-redux)
Indicate which components are interested in which state properties using the connect function (imported from react-redux)

<Provider/>

Under the covers, the <Provider store={store}/> implementation basically boils down to this:

const Provider = (props) => {

  const store = props.store;

  return (
    <div>
      {props.children}
    </div>
  );
}

The actual implementation can be reviewed here:

https://github.com/reduxjs/react-redux/blob/master/src/components/Provider.js

In this way, the store is accessible to all of the children (i.e. the app) of <Provider>, although the children cannot access it directly; they need to use the various functions provided by Redux.

Simple Example of Redux in a React App

Usually, the Store is created in the index.js file (where the <App /> is added to the DOM). Note that the Provider component wraps the entire app, including the BrowserRouter component.

index.js

import React from 'react';
import ReactDOM from 'react-dom';
import { createStore } from 'redux';
import { Provider } from 'react-redux';
import './index.css';
import App from './App';
import registerServiceWorker from './registerServiceWorker';

import reducer from './store/reducer';

const store = createStore(reducer);

ReactDOM.render(<App />, document.getElementById('root'));
ReactDOM.render(
  <React.StrictMode>
    <Provider store={store}>
      <BrowserRouter>
        <App />
      </BrowserRouter>
    </Provider>
  </React.StrictMode>,
  document.getElementById('root')
);
registerServiceWorker();

The Reducer is normally defined in a separate file, which is typically src/store/reducer.js.

Note: great care must be taken to ensure that the state is always updated immutably!

reducer.js

import * as actionTypes from './actions/actions';

const initialState= {
  counter: 0,
  results: [],
}

const reducer = (state = initialState, action) => {
  switch (action.type) {
    case actionTypes.INCREMENT: {
      // spread existing state into new object, 
      // then override counter value
      return {
        ...state,
        counter: state.counter + 1,
      };
    }
    case actionTypes.DECREMENT: {
      return {
        ...state,
        counter: state.counter - 1,
      };
    }
    case actionTypes.ADD: {
      return {
        ...state,
        counter: state.counter + action.val,
      };
    }
    case actionTypes.SUBTRACT:
      return {
        ...state,
        counter: state.counter - action.val,
      };
    case actionTypes.STORE_RESULT: {
      // spread existing state into new object, 
      // then override results by calling concat(),
      // which returns a new array with the value added,
      // leaving the original array untouched
      // (do not use push(), which will change the existing state)
      return {
        ...state,
        results: state.results.concat({ id: new Date(), value: state.counter }),
      };
    }
    case actionTypes.DELETE_RESULT: {
      // spread existing state into new object, 
      // then override results by calling filter(),
      // which returns a new array with only the values
      // that match the filter function.
      // The original array is untouched.
      // (do not use push(), which will change the existing state)
      const updatedArray = state.results.filter((result) => result.id !== action.id);
      return {
        ...state,
        results: updatedArray,
      };
    }
    default:
      return state;
  }
}

export default reducer;

To subscribe to the Store in React, the connect()() function is used (imported from react-redux):

Counter.js

import React, { Component } from 'react';
import { connect } from 'react-redux';
import CounterControl from './CounterControl';
import CounterOutput from './CounterOutput';
import * as actionTypes from './actions/actions';

class Counter extends Component {
  // local state is no longer needed
  // state = {
  //   counter: 0,
  // };

  render() {
    return (
      <div>
        {/* get counter value from Redux store */}
        <CounterOutput value={this.props.ctr} />
        <CounterControl label="Increment" clicked={this.props.onIncrementCounter} />
        <CounterControl label="Decrement" clicked={this.props.onDecrementCounter} />
        <CounterControl label="Add 5" clicked={this.props.onAddCounter.bind(this, 5)} />
        <CounterControl label="Subtract 5" clicked={this.props.onSubtractCounter.bind(this, 5)} />
        <hr />
        <button onClick={this.props.onStoreResult}>Store Result</button>
        <ul>
          {this.props.storedResults.map((strResult) => (
            <li key={strResult.id} onClick={this.props.onDeleteResult.bind(this, strResult.id)}>
              {strResult.value}
            </li>
          ))}
        </ul>
      </div>
    );
  }
}

// define function to indicate the state properties
// in which this component is interested
const mapStateToProps = (state) => {
  return {
    // maps state.counter to this.props.ctr
    ctr: state.counter,
    // maps state.results to this.props.storedResults
    storedResults: state.results,
  };
};

const mapDispatchToProps = (dispatch) => {
  return {
    onIncrementCounter: () => dispatch({ type: actionTypes.INCREMENT }),
    onDecrementCounter: () => dispatch({ type: actionTypes.DECREMENT }),
    onAddCounter: (num) => dispatch({ type: actionTypes.ADD, val: num }),
    onSubtractCounter: (num) => dispatch({ type: actionTypes.SUBTRACT, val: num }),
    onStoreResult: () => dispatch({ type: actionTypes.STORE_RESULT }),
    onDeleteResult: (id) => dispatch({ type: actionTypes.DELETE_RESULT, id: id }),
  };
};

// the connect()() function basically says:
// the Counter component will use the
// state properties defined in mapStateToProps,
// and will update the state using the functions
// defined in mapDispatchToProps; please expose 
// the properties and functions via this.props.
export default connect(mapStateToProps, mapDispatchToProps)(Counter);

To reduce bugs due to typos, action types are stored as const values in a separate file, which can then be imported:

actions/actions.js

export const INCREMENT = 'INCREMENT';
export const DECREMENT = 'DECREMENT';
export const ADD = 'ADD';
export const SUBTRACT = 'SUBTRACT';
export const STORE_RESULT = 'STORE_RESULT';
export const DELETE_RESULT = 'DELETE_RESULT';

Rather than locating all reducer functions in a single file, they can be split across multiple files and then combined using the combineReducers function, provided by Redux.

For example, in the following example, reducer.js (from above) is split into counter.js and result.js and then combined:

reducers/counter.js

import * as actionTypes from '../action/actions';

// only need to include state properties relevant
// to the reducers in this file
const initialState = {
  counter: 0,
};

const reducer = (state = initialState, action) => {
  switch (action.type) {
    case actionTypes.INCREMENT: {
      return {
        ...state,
        counter: state.counter + 1,
      };
    }
    case actionTypes.DECREMENT: {
      return {
        ...state,
        counter: state.counter - 1,
      };
    }
    case actionTypes.ADD: {
      return {
        ...state,
        counter: state.counter + action.val,
      };
    }
    case actionTypes.SUBTRACT:
      return {
        ...state,
        counter: state.counter - action.val,
      };
    }
    default:
      return state;
  }
};

export default reducer;

reducers/result.js

import * as actionTypes from '../actions/actions';

// only need to include state properties relevant
// to the reducers in this file
const initialState = {
  results: [],
};

const reducer = (state = initialState, action) => {
  switch (action.type) {
    case actionTypes.STORE_RESULT: {
      return {
        ...state,
        results: state.results.concat({ id: new Date(), value: action.result }),
      };
    }
    case actionTypes.DELETE_RESULT: {
      const updatedArray = state.results.filter((result) => result.id !== action.id);
      return {
        ...state,
        results: updatedArray,
      };
    }
    default:
      return state;
  }
};

export default reducer;

index.js

...etc...

import { createStore, combineReducers } from 'redux';

...etc...

// import the reducers
import counterReducer from './reducers/counter';
import resultReducer from './reducers/result';

// expose individual reducers as rootReducer properties
const rootReducer = combineReducers({
  ctr: counterReducer,
  res: resultReducer
});

// create the store
const store = createStore(rootReducer);

...etc...

When combining reducers, one issue to be aware of is that the individual reducers can no longer directly access the combined state. The normal workaround for this is to pass any shared state properties as part of the action payload.

Counter.js

...etc...

class Counter extends Component {
  render() {
    return (
      <div>
      
        ...etc...
        
        // pass current counter value to the event handler
        <button onClick={this.props.onStoreResult.bind(this, this.props.ctr)}>Store Result</button>
      
        ...etc...
        
      </div>
    );
  }
}

// expose individual reducer state properties as local props
const mapStateToProps = (state) => {
  return {
    ctr: state.ctr.counter,
    storedResults: state.res.results,
  };
};

const mapDispatchToProps = (dispatch) => {
  return {
    ...etc...

    // pass the current counter result to the action payload 
    onStoreResult: (ctrResult) => dispatch({ type: actionTypes.STORE_RESULT, result: ctrResult }),

    ...etc...
  };
};

...etc...

In the context of Redux, middleware is a function that can be inserted into a Redux implementation to react to, or alter, an action before it is received by the reducer.

The middleware is defined in index.js:

index.js

// add logger middleware function, to which
// we pass the Redux store
const logger = store => {
  // return another function, to which we
  // pass a 'next' argument.
  // 'next' will be a function which can be
  // executed to let the action continue
  // its journey onto the reducer.
  return next => {
    // return yet another function, to which
    // is passed an 'action' argument.
    // This function will be executed automatically.
    return action => {
      // this is the code we actually want to execute

      console.log('[Middleware] Dispatching', action);
      // this allows the action to continue to 
      // the reducer (the action could be
      // changed in this middleware - with care!)
      const result = next(action);

      console.log('[Middleware] next state', store.getState());

      // return the result of the action
      return result;
    }
  }
}

Once defined, the middleware is registered with Redux using the applyMiddleware() function. Multiple middleware functions can be passed into the applyMiddleware() function.

index.js

import { createStore, combineReducers, applyMiddleware } from 'redux';

...etc...

const store = createStore(rootReducer, 
                  applyMiddleware(logger, other1, other2, ...etc...));

...etc...

A useful tool for debugging Redux is the Redux DevTools extension for Chrome. This can be found here:

https://chrome.google.com/webstore/detail/redux-devtools/lmhkpmbekcpmknklioeibfkpmmfibljd?hl=en

Further information and instructions can be found here:

https://github.com/zalmoxisus/redux-devtools-extension

To allow this extension to debug an app, the Redux store needs to be configured in the following manner:

import { createStore, combineReducers, 
            applyMiddleware, compose } from 'redux';

...etc...

// simple case:
// testing process.env.NODE_ENV ensures that the dev tools are disabled in production
// const store = createStore(
//   rootReducer, 
//   process.env.NODE_ENV === 'development'
//     ? typeof window !== 'undefined' && 
//     window.__REDUX_DEVTOOLS_EXTENSION__ && 
//       window.__REDUX_DEVTOOLS_EXTENSION__() : null
// );

// enhancer or middleware case:
// testing process.env.NODE_ENV ensures that the dev tools are disabled in production
const composeEnhancers =
  process.env.NODE_ENV === 'development'
    ? typeof window !== 'undefined' && window.__REDUX_DEVTOOLS_EXTENSION_COMPOSE__
    : null || compose;

const store = createStore(
  rootReducer, 
  composeEnhancers(
    applyMiddleware(logger, other1, other2, ...etc...)
  )
);

...etc...

NOTE: the compose function is similar to the combineReducers function, however it works on enhancers and middleware, rather than reducers.

An alternative is the following, which allows diagnostics to be accessed programmatically in an app:

https://github.com/reduxjs/redux-devtools

A more flexible approach to defining action types is to use action creators, rather than just simple properties. This approach allows additional actions to be triggered when a particular action type is referenced.

actions/actions.js

export const INCREMENT = 'INCREMENT';

export const increment = () => {
  return {
    type: INCREMENT,
  };
};

Now, rather than import the action types directly, the creator function is imported instead:

Counter.js

import * as actionCreators from './actions/actions';

...etc...

const mapDispatchToProps = (dispatch) => {
  return {
    onIncrementCounter: () => dispatch(actionCreators.increment())
  };
};

export default connect(mapStateToProps, mapDispatchToProps)(Counter);

Note

It is common to split the action creators into multiple files, in a similar manner to reducers:

actions/actions.js

export const INCREMENT = 'INCREMENT';
export const STORE_RESULT = 'STORE_RESULT';

actions/counter.js

import * as actionTypes from './actions';

export const increment = () => {
  return {
    type: actionTypes.INCREMENT,
  };
};

actions/result.js

import * as actionTypes from './actions';

export const storeResult = (result) => {
  return {
    type: actionTypes.STORE_RESULT,
    result: result,
  };
};

These can now be imported via an intermediary index file:

actions/index.js

export {
  add,
  subtract,
  increment,
  decrement
} from './counter';

export {
  storeResult,
  deleteResult
} from './result';

The index file can then be imported into the files that want to reference the actions:

Counter.js

import * as actionCreators from './actions/index';

...etc...

Redux Thunk is middleware that can intercept Redux actions and then run them asynchronously. The actions wrap functions that can be executed by the middleware, which can pass the state of the Redux store (plus other arguments) to the wrapped function.

The wrapped function is known as a thunk.

Further details can be found here:

https://github.com/reduxjs/redux-thunk

To use Redux Thunk:

Install: npm install redux-thunk
Import: import thunk from 'redux-thunk';

To register redux-thunk as middleware, do the following:

index.js

import thunk from 'redux-thunk';

...etc...

const store = createStore(
  rootReducer, 
  composeEnhancers(
    applyMiddleware(logger, thunk)
  )
);

...etc...

To make use of Redux Thunk, both synchronous and asynchronous versions of an action are defined, with the asynchronous version calling the synchronous version when it is ready to do so.

actions/result.js

// synchronous action
// returns immediately
export const saveResult = (result) => {
  return {
    type: actionsTypes.STORE_RESULT,
    result: result,
  };
};

// asynchronous action
// returns eventually
export const storeResult = (result) => {
  // because redux-thunk is middleware,
  // the following function can be intercepted 
  // and then return the result at a
  // later time
  
  // this function is the "thunk"
  return (dispatch) => {
    // simulate a server query use setTimeout
    setTimeout(() => {
      // when the timeout ends, the dispatch
      // function calls the synchronous action.
      dispatch(saveResult(result));
    }, 2000);
  };
};

When transforming data/state, there are two places this can be done:

In the Action Creator

export const saveResult = (result) => {

  const updatedResult = /* transform result */

  return {
    type: actionTypes.STORE_RESULT,
    result: updatedResult,
  };
};

This has the advantage that it can run asynchronous code, but the it goes against the core Redux concept that only reducers should update the state.

In the Reducer

const reducer = (state = initialState, action) => {
  switch (action.type) {
    case actionTypes.STORE_RESULT: {
      return {
        ...state,
        results: state.results.concat(
          { 
            id: new Date(), 
            value: /* transform action.result */ 
           }
         ),
      };
    }
    default:
      return state;
  }
};

This has the advantage that it follows the concept that only reducers should update the state, however they can only handle pure, synchronous code.

Which approach to use?

In general, transformation logic should put in the reducer, since this is what reducers are intended for, however in some cases it may make sense to include some transformation logic in the action creator.

For example, if the response from a server needs to be cleaned up before being passed to the rest of the logic it makes sense to do this in the action creator (which receives the raw response), however if properties of the response need to changed this should happen in the reducer (which converts the received data into state).

Avoid putting large amount of transform logic in both the reducer and the action creator, since this can make maintenance of the code difficult.

Caveat: getState

A feature of Redux Thunk that can make putting transform logic in the action creator more attractive is that it can pass a getState function into the action creator. This can then be used to perform actions based on the current state.

export const storeResult = (result) => {
  return (dispatch, getState) => {
    setTimeout(() => {
    
      const oldCounter = getState().ctr.counter;
      console.log(oldCounter);
      
      dispatch(saveResult(result));
    }, 2000);
  };
};

Although this is useful, it is recommended to avoid doing this too often. If possible, it would be better to design the app so that any state properties that are required into the action creator can be passed in as arguments instead.

Validation of Email Addresses

See the section on Form Validation for some considerations when validating email addresses.

Implementation

Auth.js

import React, { Component } from 'react';
import { connect } from 'react-redux';

import * as actions from './actions/auth';
import Input from './Input';
import Button from './Button';
import Spinner from './Spinner';
import classes from './Auth.module.css';

class Auth extends Component {
  state = {
    controls: {
      email: {
        elementType: 'input',
        elementConfig: {
          type: 'email',
          placeholder: 'Email Address',
        },
        value: '',
        validation: {
          required: true,
          isEmail: true,
        },
        valid: false,
        touched: false,
      },
      password: {
        elementType: 'input',
        elementConfig: {
          type: 'password',
          placeholder: 'Password',
        },
        value: '',
        validation: {
          required: true,
          minLength: 6,
        },
        valid: false,
        touched: false,
      },
    },
    isSignup: true,
  };

  checkValidity(value, rules) {
    let isValid = true;

    if (rules) {
      if (rules.required) {
        isValid = value.trim() !== '' && isValid;
      }

      if (rules.minLength) {
        isValid = value.length >= rules.minLength && isValid;
      }

      if (rules.maxLength) {
        isValid = value.length <= rules.maxLength && isValid;
      }

      if (rules.isEmail) {
        const EMAIL_REGEX = /^\S+@\S+$/i;
        isValid = EMAIL_REGEX.test(value) && isValid;
      }

      if (rules.isNumeric) {
        const NUMBER_REGEX = /^\d+$/;
        isValid = NUMBER_REGEX.test(value) && isValid;
      }
    }

    return isValid;
  }

  inputChangedHandler = (event, controlName) => {
    const updatedControls = {
      ...this.state.controls,
      [controlName]: {
        ...this.state.controls[controlName],
        value: event.target.value,
        valid: this.checkValidity(event.target.value, this.state.controls[controlName].validation),
        touched: true,
      },
    };
    this.setState({ controls: updatedControls });
  };

  submitHandler = ( event ) => {
    event.preventDefault();
    this.props.onAuth( this.state.controls.email.value, this.state.controls.password.value, this.state.isSignup );
  }

  signOutHandler = (event) => {
    event.preventDefault();
    this.props.onSignOut();
  };
  
  switchAuthModeHandler = () => {
    this.setState((prevState) => {
      return { isSignup: !prevState.isSignup };
    });
  };
  
  render() {
    const formElementsArray = [];
    for (const key in this.state.controls) {
      formElementsArray.push({
        id: key,
        config: this.state.controls[key],
      });
    }

    const form = formElementsArray.map((formElement) => (
      <Input
        key={formElement.id}
        elementType={formElement.config.elementType}
        elementConfig={formElement.config.elementConfig}
        value={formElement.config.value}
        invalid={!formElement.config.valid}
        shouldValidate={formElement.config.validation}
        touched={formElement.config.touched}
        changed={(event) => this.inputChangedHandler(event, formElement.id)}
      />
    ));

    if (this.props.loading) {
      form = <Spinner />;
    }

    let errorMessage = null;
    if (this.props.error) {
      errorMessage = <p>{this.props.error}</p>;
    }

    return (
      <div className={classes.Auth}>
        {errorMessage}
        <form onSubmit={this.submitHandler}>
          {form}
          <Button btnType="Success">SUBMIT</Button>
        </form>
        <Button clicked={this.switchAuthModeHandler} btnType="Danger">
          SWITCH TO {this.state.isSignup ? 'SIGN-IN' : 'SIGN-UP'}
        </Button>
        <Button clicked={this.signOutHandler} btnType="Success">
          SIGN OUT
        </Button>
      </div>
    );
  }
}

const mapStateToProps = (state) => {
  return {
    loading: state.auth.loading,
    error: state.auth.error,
  };
};

const mapDispatchToProps = (dispatch) => {
  return {
    onAuth: (email, password, isSignup) => dispatch(actions.auth(email, password, isSignup)),
    onSignOut: () => dispatch(actions.signOut()),
  };
};

export default connect(mapStateToProps, mapDispatchToProps)(Auth);

App.js

import React, { Component } from 'react';
import { Switch, Route, Redirect } from 'react-router-dom';
import Auth from './Auth';

class App extends Component {

  render() {
    return (
      <div>
        <Layout>
          <Switch>
            ...etc...
            <Route path="/auth" component={Auth} />
            ...etc...
          </Switch>
        </Layout>
      </div>
    );
  }
}

export default App;

actions/actionTypes.js

export const AUTH_START = 'AUTH_START';
export const AUTH_SUCCESS = 'AUTH_SUCCESS';
export const AUTH_FAIL = 'AUTH_FAIL';
export const AUTH_SIGN_OUT = 'AUTH_SIGN_OUT';

actions/auth.js

import * as actionTypes from './actionTypes';

export const authStart = () => {
  return {
    type: actionTypes.AUTH_START,
  };
};

export const authSuccess = (authData) => {
  return {
    type: actionTypes.AUTH_SUCCESS,
    authData: authData,
  };
};

export const authFail = (error) => {
  return {
    type: actionTypes.AUTH_FAIL,
    error: error,
  };
};

export const authSignOut = () => {
  return {
    type: actionTypes.AUTH_SIGN_OUT,
  };
};

export const auth = (email, password, isSignup) => {
  return (dispatch) => {
    dispatch(authStart());
    
    /* authentication action will go here */
    
  };
};

export const signOut = () => {
  return (dispatch) => {
  
    /* sign-out action will go here */
    
  };
};

reducers/auth.js

import * as actionTypes from '../actions/actionTypes';
import { updateObject } from '../utility';

const initialState = {
  authData: null,
  error: null,
  loading: false,
};

const authStart = (state, action) => {
  return updateObject(state, { error: null, loading: true });
};

const authSuccess = (state, action) => {
  return updateObject(state, {
    authData: action.authData,
    error: null,
    loading: false,
  });
};

const authFail = (state, action) => {
  return updateObject(state, { error: action.error, loading: false });
};

const authSignOut = (state, action) => {
  return updateObject(state, initialState);
};

const reducer = (state = initialState, action) => {
  switch (action.type) {
    case actionTypes.AUTH_START: {
      return authStart(state, action);
    }
    case actionTypes.AUTH_SUCCESS: {
      return authSuccess(state, action);
    }
    case actionTypes.AUTH_FAIL: {
      return authFail(state, action);
    }
    case actionTypes.AUTH_SIGN_OUT: {
      return authSignOut(state, action);
    }
    default:
      return state;
  }
};

export default reducer;

index.js


...etc...

import authReducer from './reducers/auth';

...etc...

const rootReducer = combineReducers({
  ...etc...
  auth: authReducer,
});

const store = createStore(rootReducer, ...etc...);

...etc...

Reference information for authentication in Firebase can be found here:

https://firebase.google.com/docs/reference/rest/auth

The Firebase module needs to be installed:

Install: npm install firebase
Import: import firebase from 'firebase/app'; import 'firebase/auth';

NOTE: It is recommended that you only the packages you actually need, rather than importing the entire Firebase module.

Register App With Firebase

Before performing authentication using firebase, the application needs to be registered with the project. The current steps to do this are:

Open the Firebase control panel for the project
Open "Project Overview" (top-left)
Click "+ Add app" (just under the project name, in the main panel)
Click "</>" (for web app)
When prompted, give the app a nickname and click "Register app".
Further information will be provided regarding installing and using the SDK, however this can be ignored for the following purposes.

The configuration details for the Firebase connection can be obtained from:

Open "Project settings" (the cog, in the top left)
Scroll down to identify the web app
Under "Firebase SDK snippet", click "Config"
Copy the snippet into auth.js

Implementation

App.js

import React, { Component } from 'react';
import { Switch, Route, Redirect } from 'react-router-dom';
import firebase from 'firebase/app';
import 'firebase/auth';
import Auth from './Auth';

class App extends Component {

  // this will be triggered the first time the page is
  // rendered
  componentDidMount() {
    firebase.auth().onAuthStateChanged(function (user) {
      if (user) {
        console.log('Authenticated!', user);
      } else {
        console.log('Denied!');
        // No user is signed in.
      }
    });
  }

  render() {
    return (
      <div>
        <Layout>
          <Switch>
            ...etc...
            <Route path="/auth" component={Auth} />
            ...etc...
          </Switch>
        </Layout>
      </div>
    );
  }
}

export default App;

reducers/auth.js

...etc...

const initialState = {
  user: null,
  error: null,
  loading: false,
};

...etc...

const authSuccess = (state, action) => {
  return updateObject(state, {
    user: action.user,
    error: null,
    loading: false,
  });
};

...etc...

actions/auth.js

// import the Firebase authentication package
import firebase from 'firebase/app';
import 'firebase/auth';

// for security, store config in a separate file
// and exclude this from source control.
import { firebaseConfig } from '../firebase-config';

// initialize connection to firebase
const fire = firebase.initializeApp(firebaseConfig);

export const authStart = () => { ...etc... };

export const authSuccess = (user) => {
  return {
    type: actionTypes.AUTH_SUCCESS,
    user: user,
  };
};

export const authFail = (error) => { ...etc... };

export const authSignOut = () => { ...etc... };

export const auth = (email, password, isSignup) => {

  let doAuth = (email, password) => {
    return fire.auth().createUserWithEmailAndPassword(email, password);
  };

  if (!isSignUp) {
    doAuth = (email, password) => {
      return fire.auth().signInWithEmailAndPassword(email, password);
    };
  }

  return (dispatch) => {
    dispatch(authStart());

    doAuth(email, password)
      .then((response) => {
        dispatch(authSuccess(response.user));
      })
      .catch((err) => {
        console.log(err);
        dispatch(authFail(err.message));
      });
  };
};

export const signOut = () => {
  return (dispatch) => {
    fire
      .auth()
      .signOut()
      .then((response) => {
        dispatch(authSignOut());
      })
      .catch((err) => {
        console.log(err);
        dispatch(authFail(err));
      });
  };
};

firebase-config.js

// Obtain configuration from "Project Settings" 
// in Firebase console
export const firebaseConfig = {
  apiKey: '...',
  authDomain: '...',
  databaseURL: '...',
  projectId: '...',
  storageBucket: '...',
  messagingSenderId: '...',
  appId: '...',
  measurementId: '...',
};

Securing the Firebase Config

The Firebase configuration settings are not designed to be hidden; no matter what steps you take, the settings will be publically available once loaded into a browser.

In any event, if you want to avoid making the configuration accessible in source control, the standard approach is to store the config in a separate file. This file can then be excluded from source control.

In the case of git, add the following to .gitignore:

relative/path/to/fire.js

Rather than obfuscation, Firebase security depends on the correct access permissions being setup for the project. There are two main steps that should be taken:

Configure the database to only allow connections from the production domain.
- For localhost testing, create a separate database instance under a different google id.
Setup proper access rules for the database and storage.

These steps are discussed in greater depth in the following document:

https://medium.com/@impaachu/how-to-secure-your-firebase-project-even-when-your-api-key-is-publicly-available-a462a2a58843

In the case of other backends, a more generic approach is to use Axios.

Implementation

reducers/auth.js

...etc...

const initialState = {
  token: null,
  userId: null,
  error: null,
  loading: false,
};

...etc...

const authSuccess = (state, action) => {
  return updateObject(state, {
    token: action.idToken,
    userId: action.userId,
    error: null,
    loading: false,
  });
};

...etc...

actions/auth.js

import axios from 'axios';

export const authStart = () => { ...etc... };

export const authSuccess = (token, userId) => {
  return {
    type: actionTypes.AUTH_SUCCESS,
    idToken: token,
    userId: userId
  };
};

export const authFail = (error) => { ...etc... };

// may need to handle token timeout internally, if not 
// handled by backend
export const checkAuthTimeout = (expirationTimeout) => {
  return dispatch => {
    setTimeout(() => {
      dispatch(authSignOut())
    }, expirationTimeout * 1000) // seconds to ms
  };
};

export const authSignOut = () => { ...etc... };

export const auth = (email, password, isSignup) => {
  return (dispatch) => {
    dispatch(authStart());

    // check API docs for URLs
    let url = isSignup ? "[signup-end-point-url]" : "[signin-end-point-url]";
    
    // check API docs for payload contents
    const authData = {
      email: email,
      password: password,
    };

    axios
      .post(
        url,
        authData
      )
      .then((response) => {
        dispatch(authSuccess(response.data.idToken, response.data.localId));
        dispatch(checkAuthTimeout(response.data.expiresIn));
      })
      .catch((err) => {
        console.log(err);
        dispatch(authFail(err));
      });
  };
};

export const signOut = () => {
  return (dispatch) => {
  
    // check API docs for URLs
    axios
      .post(
        [signout-end-point-url]
      )
      .then((response) => {
        dispatch(authSignOut());
      })
      .catch((err) => {
        console.log(err);
        dispatch(authFail(err));
      });
  };
};

Tokens

The tokens used to prove authentication are typically JWT tokens, which has the following format:

header.payload.public_key

For example, the following is a token, which is base64-encoded:

eyJhbGciOiJSUzI1NiIsImtpZCI6IjIxODQ1OWJiYTE2NGJiN2I5MWMzMjhmOD
kxZjBiNTY1M2UzYjM4YmYiLCJ0eXAiOiJKV1QifQ.
eyJpc3MiOiJodHRwczovL3NlY3VyZXRva2VuLmdvb2dsZS5jb20vcmVhY3QtbX
ktYnVyZ2VyLTJkN2M2IiwiYXVkIjoicmVhY3QtbXktYnVyZ2VyLTJkN2M2Iiwi
YXV0aF90aW1lIjoxNTk0NzM3MTg3LCJ1c2VyX2lkIjoiNm5Zb0hMZ2lDOFI2RH
hIOEQ1RjZtRnZmNmhWMiIsInN1YiI6IjZuWW9ITGdpQzhSNkR4SDhENUY2bUZ2
ZjZoVjIiLCJpYXQiOjE1OTQ3MzcxODcsImV4cCI6MTU5NDc0MDc4NywiZW1haW
wiOiJ0ZXN0QGhlcmUuY29tIiwiZW1haWxfdmVyaWZpZWQiOmZhbHNlLCJmaXJl
YmFzZSI6eyJpZGVudGl0aWVzIjp7ImVtYWlsIjpbInRlc3RAaGVyZS5jb20iXX
0sInNpZ25faW5fcHJvdmlkZXIiOiJwYXNzd29yZCJ9fQ.
g_JNsytt0u838Q4tzo5VT0tH9lj7cfzx_zJm7VDZfxs0kss0vy5Zxq4NEysNCY
DSgGbPGCOHIQ8xmxM7D_AAyy3gnNY9mgroV88Zzudyk4CFjGVrwT0HAfSah0BK
nXyteD_mGOzqB52xzw-kauHp7_zctnXWuuonF0X6PEGac_8TQr9aW3wRQDQLs7
fjWTRDCB-DZKsMLVzpTuqoXq7Nx0J1-tzmpElIxL7veoNVyIolCvVERnuroeUk
ypO37Ni15PdNwwlYXLxrd63HTpmp4HHjORdi5StQb2AAzLtZ27nyJMFcHzhTm-
NV-LCLCGbtKTSmrsUNIrTShf9UQNw5sw

When decoded, the contents of the tokn are the following:

[header]
{
  "alg": "RS256",
  "kid": "218459bba164bb7b91c328f891f0b5653e3b38bf",
  "typ": "JWT"
}

[payload]
{
  "iss": "https://securetoken.google.com/react-my-burger-2d7c6",
  "aud": "react-my-burger-2d7c6",
  "auth_time": 1594737187,
  "user_id": "6nYoHLgiC8R6DxH8D5F6mFvf6hV2",
  "sub": "6nYoHLgiC8R6DxH8D5F6mFvf6hV2",
  "iat": 1594737187,
  "exp": 1594740787,
  "email": "[email protected]",
  "email_verified": false,
  "firebase": {
    "identities": {
      "email": [
        "[email protected]"
      ]
    },
    "sign_in_provider": "password"
  }
}

[public key]
{
  ...etc...
}

In Firebase, authenticated access to protected resources is controlled by rules. These are set in the control panel via "Database" -> "Rules".

In the fully unprotected case, the rules look something like the following:

{
  "rules": {
    ".read": "true",
    ".write": "true"
  }
}

Alternatively, in the fully protected case, the rules look like this:

{
  "rules": {
    ".read": "auth != null",
    ".write": "auth != null"
  }
}

For a more nuanced approach, the rules can be applied on a node-by-node basis.

Taking the example of the following database scheme:

react-my-burger-2d7c6
- ingredients
- orders

To give unrestricted access to the ingredients while restricting access to the orders, the rules can be applied in the following manner:

{
  "rules": {
    "ingredients": {
      ".read": "true",
      ".write": "true",
    },
    "orders": {
      ".read": "auth != null",
      ".write": "auth != null",
    }
  }
}

Assuming the Firebase instance is correctly configured, authenticatation is achieved by the user logging in and then obtaining a token. The token is then passed around to prove the user has been authenticated.

actions/auth.js

Define an action to authenticate the user. If successful, this returns an token.

export const authSuccess = (user, token) => {
  return {
    type: actionTypes.AUTH_SUCCESS,
    user: user,
    token: token,
  };
};

export const auth = (email, password, isSignUp) => {
  return (dispatch) => {
    dispatch(authStart());

    fire.auth().signInWithEmailAndPassword(email, password)
      .then((response) => {
        response.user.getIdToken().then((token) => {
          dispatch(authSuccess(response.user, token));
        });
      })
      .catch((err) => {
        console.log(err);
        dispatch(authFail(err.message));
      });
  };
};

reducers/auth.js

Define a reducer that updates the store with the token.

...etc...

const initialState = {
  user: null,
  token: null,
  error: null,
  loading: false,
};

...etc...

const authSuccess = (state, action) => {
  return updateObject(state, {
    user: action.user,
    token: action.token,
    error: null,
    loading: false,
  });
};

...etc...

Orders.js

Obtain the token from the store and pass it where necessary


...etc...

class Orders extends Component {
  componentDidMount() {
    this.props.onFetchOrders(this.props.token);
  }
  
  ...etc...
}

const mapStateToProps = (state) => {
  return {
    token: state.auth.token,
  };
};

const mapDispatchToProps = (dispatch) => {
  return {
    onFetchOrders: (token) => dispatch(actions.fetchOrders(token)),
  };
};

export default connect(mapStateToProps, mapDispatchToProps)(Orders, axios);

Order.js

Obtain the token from the store and pass it where necessary

...etc...

class Order extends Component {

  orderHandler = (event) => {
  
    const order = {
      ...etc...
    };

    this.props.onOrderBurger(order, this.props.token);
  };

  ...etc...

  render() {
    let form = (
      <form onSubmit={this.orderHandler}>
        ...etc...    
      </form>
    );
    
    return (
      <div>
        {form}
      </div>
    );
  }
}

const mapStateToProps = (state) => {
  return {
    token: state.auth.token,
  };
};

const mapDispatchToProps = (dispatch) => {
  return {
    onOrderBurger: (orderData, token) => dispatch(actions.purchaseBurger(orderData, token)),
  };
};

export default connect(mapStateToProps, mapDispatchToProps)(Order, axios);

Finally, the token is passed to the backend via the endpoint URL:

actions/order.js

Pass the token to the Firebase database when data is to be read or written

...etc...

export const purchaseBurger = (orderData, token) => {
  return (dispatch) => {
    dispatch(purchaseBurgerStart());
    axios
      .post('/orders.json?auth=' + token, orderData)
      .then((response) => {
        dispatch(purchaseBurgerSuccess(response.data.name, orderData));
      })
      .catch((error) => {
        dispatch(purchaseBurgerFail(error));
      });
  };
};

...etc...

export const fetchOrders = (token) => {
  return (dispatch) => {
    dispatch(fetchOrdersStart());
    axios
      .get('/orders.json?auth=' + token)
      .then((response) => {
        const fetchedOrders = [];

        if (response && response.data) {
          for (const key in response.data) {
            fetchedOrders.push({
              ...response.data[key],
              id: key,
            });
          }
        }

        dispatch(fetchOrdersSuccess(fetchedOrders));
      })
      .catch((error) => {
        dispatch(fetchOrdersFail(error));
      });
  };
};

...etc...

The simplest test for whether a user is authenticated is to check if they have a token. In the following example, the simple case of displaying either a Login or Logout button is demonstrated.

Logout.js

First create a Logout component that can be reused whereever necessary. This calls the signOut action and then redirects to root.

import React, { Component } from 'react';
import { Redirect } from 'react-router-dom';
import { connect } from 'react-redux';

import * as actions from './actions/auth';

class Logout extends Component {
  componentDidMount() {
    this.props.onSignOut();
  }

  render() {
    return <Redirect to="/" />;
  }
}

const mapDispatchToProps = (dispatch) => {
  return {
    onSignOut: () => dispatch(actions.signOut()),
  };
};

export default connect(null, mapDispatchToProps)(Logout);

actions/auth.js

The signOut action is exposed here. This calls the signOut function on the Firebase auth API, and then call returns AUTH_SIGN_OUT if it was successful.

import * as actionTypes from './actionTypes';

...etc...

export const authSignOut = () => {
  return {
    type: actionTypes.AUTH_SIGN_OUT,
  };
};

...etc...

export const signOut = () => {
  return (dispatch) => {
    fire
      .auth()
      .signOut()
      .then((response) => {
        console.log('SignOut', response);
        dispatch(authSignOut());
      })
      .catch((err) => {
        console.log(err);
        dispatch(authFail(err));
      });
  };
};

actions/actionTypes.js

AUTH_SIGN_OUT is defined here.

...etc...

export const AUTH_SIGN_OUT = 'AUTH_SIGN_OUT';

...etc...

reducers/auth.js

Resets the Redux store to its initial state (i.e. sets token to null)

...etc...

const initialState = {
  user: null,
  token: null,
  error: null,
  loading: false,
};

const updateObject = (oldObject, updatedProperties) => {
  return {
    ...oldObject,
    ...updatedProperties,
  };
};

const authSignOut = (state, action) => {
  return updateObject(state, initialState);
};

const reducer = (state = initialState, action) => {
  switch (action.type) {
    
    ...etc...
    
    case actionTypes.AUTH_SIGN_OUT: {
      return authSignOut(state, action);
    }
    
    ...etc...
  }
};

...etc...

App.js

The Logout component can be placed wherever the option to sign-out is required. Here, a redirect is used to forward the /logout path to the sign-out routine.

...etc...
import Logout from './Logout';

class App extends Component {

  render() {
    return (
      <div>
        <Layout>
          <Switch>
            ...etc...
            <Route path="/logout" component={Logout} />
            ...etc...
          </Switch>
        </Layout>
      </div>
    );
  }
}
...etc...

Layout.js

Generally, the authentication state is passed down from a higher-level class component to lower-level functional components.

import React, { Component } from 'react';
import { connect } from 'react-redux';
import Toolbar from './Toolbar';

...etc...

class Layout extends Component {
  ...etc...
  
  render() {
    return (
      <Wrapper>
        <Toolbar isAuth={this.props.isAuthenticated} ...etc... />
      </Wrapper>
    );
  }
}

const mapStateToProps = (state) => {
  return {
    isAuthenticated: state.auth.token !== null,
  };
};

export default connect(mapStateToProps)(Layout);

Toolbar.js

import React from 'react';
import NavigationItems from './NavigationItems';
...etc...

const Toolbar = (props) => (
  <header className={classes.Toolbar}>
  
    ...etc...
  
    <nav className={classes.DesktopOnly}>
      <NavigationItems isAuthenticated={props.isAuth} />
    </nav>
  </header>
);

export default Toolbar;

NavigationItems.js

Here, we can simply test props.isAuthenticated

const NavigationItems = (props) => (
  <ul className={classes.NavigationItems}>
    {props.isAuthenticated ? (
      <NavigationItem link="/logout">Logout</NavigationItem>
    ) : (
      <NavigationItem link="/auth">Login</NavigationItem>
    )}
  </ul>
);

export default NavigationItems;

Depending on the authentication state, the user may need to be redirected to different pages. For example, if the user builds a burger and want to checkout, they may need to be directed to either the checkout page or the login page, depending on whether they are logged in or not.

actions/actionTypes.js

Add an action type for setting the post-authentication redirect path.

...etc...
export const SET_AUTH_REDIRECT_PATH = 'SET_AUTH_REDIRECT_PATH';
...etc...

reducers/auth.js

Add a reducer

const initialState = {
  ...etc...
  authRedirectPath: '/',
};

...etc...

const setAuthRedirectPath = (state, action) => {
  return updateObject(state, { authRedirectPath: action.path });
};

const reducer = (state = initialState, action) => {
  switch (action.type) {
    ...etc...
    
    case actionTypes.SET_AUTH_REDIRECT_PATH: {
      return setAuthRedirectPath(state, action);
    }
    default:
      return state;
  }
};

actions/auth.js

Add action that indicates that the post-authorization redirect path needs to be changed.


...etc...

// set the path to be redirected to after authentication
export const setAuthRedirectPath = (path) => {
  return {
    type: actionTypes.SET_AUTH_REDIRECT_PATH,
    path: path,
  };
};

...etc...

Auth.js

During authentication, ensure that the redirect path is set correctly (essentially, if the user has not yet built a burger, go to root, otherwise go to elsewhere (e.g. checkout))

...etc...
import { Redirect } from 'react-router-dom';

class Auth extends Component {
  ...etc...
  
  componentDidMount() {
    // if user is not building a burger, and the redirect path is not root,
    // set the redirect path to root
    if (!this.props.buildingBurger && this.props.authRedirectPath !== '/') {
      this.props.onSetAuthRedirectPath();
    }
  }
  
  ...etc...
  
  render() {
  {
    // create redirect component (initially set to null, so ignored)
    let authRedirect = null;
    if (this.props.isAuthenticated) {
      authRedirect = <Redirect to={this.props.authRedirectPath} />;
    }

    return (
      <div className={classes.Auth}>
        {authRedirect} // redirect if not null

        ...etc...
      </div>
    );
  }
}

const mapStateToProps = (state) => {
  return {
    ...etc...
    // authentication test
    isAuthenticated: state.auth.token !== null,
    // if true, users wants to go to authRedirectPath
    buildingBurger: state.burgerBuilder.building, 
    // the path to be redirected to
    authRedirectPath: state.auth.authRedirectPath,
  };
};

// expose action that will reset the redirect path to root
const mapDispatchToProps = (dispatch) => {
  return {
    ...etc...
    onSetAuthRedirectPath: () => dispatch(actions.setAuthRedirectPath('/')),
  };
};

reducers/burgerBuilder.js

Add a flag to indicate whether or not the user is building a burger (which determines whether the user should be redirected the checkout or not)

...etc...

const initialState = {
  ...etc...
  building: false,
};

...etc...

const addIngredientHandler = (state, ingredientType) => {
  ...etc...

  const updatedState = {
    ...etc...
    building: true,
  };
  return updateObject(state, updatedState);
};

const removeIngredientHandler = (state, ingredientType) => {
  ...etc...

  const updatedState = {
    ...etc...
    building: true,
  };
  return updateObject(state, updatedState);
};

const setIngredientsHandler = (state, updatedIngredients) => {

  ...etc...
  
  return updateObject(state, {
    ...etc...
    building: false,
  });
};

...etc...

BurgerBuilder.js

If user is successully authenticated, allow them to go to the checkout, otherwise redirect them to the login page.

...etc...

class BurgerBuilder extends Component {
  ...etc...
  
  purchaseHandler = () => {
    if (this.props.isAuthenticated) {
    // if user is already authenticated, send them straight
    // to the checkout
      this.setState({ purchasing: true });
    } else {
      // redirect user to login page, and then,
      // if successful, redirect them to the checkout 
      this.props.onSetAuthRedirectPath('/checkout');
      this.props.history.push('/auth');
    }
  };

  render() {
    ...etc...

    if (this.props.ingredients) {
      burger = (
        <Wrapper>
          ...etc...
        
          <BuildControls
            ...etc...
            isAuth={this.props.isAuthenticated}
          />
        </Wrapper>
      );
      
      ...etc...
    }

    return (
      <Wrapper>
        ...etc...
        
        {burger}
      </Wrapper>
    );
  }
}

const mapStateToProps = (state) => {
  if (state) {
    return {
      ...etc...
      isAuthenticated: state.auth.token !== null,
    };
  } else {
    return null;
  }
};

const mapDispatchToProps = (dispatch) => {
  return {
    ...etc...
    onSetAuthRedirectPath: (path) => dispatch(actions.setAuthRedirectPath(path)),
  };
};

export default connect(mapStateToProps, mapDispatchToProps)(withErrorHandler(BurgerBuilder, axios));

BuildControls.js

Change the state of the order button depending on whether or not the user is authenticated.

...etc...

const BuildControls = (props) => (
  <div className={classes.BuildControls}>
    ...etc...

    <button
      ...etc...
    >
      {props.isAuth ? 'ORDER NOW' : 'LOGIN TO ORDER'}
    </button>
  </div>
);

export default BuildControls;

If the authentication state is not persisted, refreshing the page will reset the application state. To avoid this, a standard browser API is used: localStorage

actions/auth.js

Write authentication state to localStorage. Also add functions to test what current authentication state is.


...etc...

const AUTH_TOKEN = 'AUTH_TOKEN';
const AUTH_TOKEN_EXPIRATION = 'AUTH_TOKEN_EXPIRATION';
const AUTH_USER_ID = 'AUTH_USER_ID';

...etc...

// remove the token from localStorage when the user logs out
export const authSignOut = () => {
  removeTokenFromLocalStorage();
  return {
    type: actionTypes.AUTH_SIGN_OUT,
  };
};

// get the expiration date from the token
const getExpirationDate = (jwtToken) => {
  if (!jwtToken) {
    return null;
  }

  // token format: header.payload.public_key
  // extract payload (payload.exp = expiry time)
  const jwt = JSON.parse(atob(jwtToken.split('.')[1]));

  // multiply by 1000 to convert seconds into milliseconds
  return (jwt && jwt.exp && jwt.exp * 1000) || null;
};

// check if the token expiry time has passed
const isExpired = (expiryTime) => {
  if (!expiryTime) {
    return false;
  }
  return Date.now() > expiryTime;
};

// write the token to localStorage
// (or remove it if token is not found)
const writeTokenToLocalStorage = (user, token) => {
  if (token) {
    const expirationDate = getExpirationDate(token);

    // if using JSON.stringify() when writing to localStorage, 
    // need to remember to use JSON.parse() when reading values from localStorage
    localStorage.setItem(AUTH_TOKEN, JSON.stringify(token));
    localStorage.setItem(AUTH_TOKEN_EXPIRATION, JSON.stringify(expirationDate));
    localStorage.setItem(AUTH_USER_ID, JSON.stringify(user));
  } else {
    removeTokenFromLocalStorage();
  }
};

// delete the token from localStorage
const removeTokenFromLocalStorage = () => {
  localStorage.removeItem(AUTH_TOKEN);
  localStorage.removeItem(AUTH_TOKEN_EXPIRATION);
  localStorage.removeItem(AUTH_USER_ID);
};

// send the user's credentials to the Firebase instance for authentication
// and then store the returned token if successful
export const auth = (email, password, isSignUp) => {
  let doAuth = (email, password) => {
    return fire.auth().createUserWithEmailAndPassword(email, password);
  };

  if (!isSignUp) {
    doAuth = (email, password) => {
      return fire.auth().signInWithEmailAndPassword(email, password);
    };
  }

  return (dispatch) => {
    dispatch(authStart());

    doAuth(email, password)
      .then((response) => {
        response.user.getIdToken().then((token) => {
          writeTokenToLocalStorage(response.user, token);
          dispatch(authSuccess(response.user, token));
        });
      })
      .catch((err) => {
        console.log(err);
        dispatch(authFail(err.message));
      });
  };
};

// Check the current state of the authentication.
// If token cannot be found in localStorage, or
// it has expired, sign-out, else reconfirm that
// authentication is successful.
export const authCheckState = () => {
  return (dispatch) => {

    // if using JSON.stringify() when writing to localStorage, 
    // need to remember to use JSON.parse() when reading values from localStorage
    const token = JSON.parse(localStorage.getItem(AUTH_TOKEN));
    
    if (!token) {
      dispatch(signOut());
    } else {
      const expirationDate = JSON.parse(localStorage.getItem(AUTH_TOKEN_EXPIRATION));
      if (isExpired(expirationDate)) {
        dispatch(signOut());
      } else {
        const userId = JSON.parse(localStorage.getItem(AUTH_USER_ID));
        dispatch(authSuccess(userId, token));
      }
    }
  };
};

App.js

When main app is mounted, test the current authentication state.

...etc...
import { Switch, Route, Redirect, withRouter } from 'react-router-dom';
import { connect } from 'react-redux';
import * as actions from './actions/auth';

class App extends Component {

  // when component mounts, test whether user is authenticated
  componentDidMount() {
    this.props.onTryAutoSignup();
  }
  
  ...etc...

}

// get action for testing authentication state
const mapDispatchToProps = (dispatch) => {
  return {
    onTryAutoSignup: () => dispatch(actions.authCheckState()),
  };
};

// use withRouter to ensure that props get passed to App
export default withRouter(connect(null, mapDispatchToProps)(App));

A Guarded Route is essentially one that does not get rendered to the UI except under a specific condition, e.g. if the user is logged in.

NOTE: A Guarded Route only protects the user from accidentally accessing pages they shouldn't; it does not prevent a determined user from digging down into the app javascript source code and viewing the pages (since the source code is always sent to the browser). This is why server-side access permissions are used to control access to the data.

App.js

Only render the checkout, orders and logout pages if the user is logged in. Also, redirect the user to a warning page if they are not logged in.

...etc...

class App extends Component {

  ...etc...

  render() {
    let routes = (
      <Switch>
        <Route path="/auth" component={Auth} />
        <Route path="/burger" exact component={BurgerBuilder} />
        <Redirect from="/" to="/burger" />
        <Redirect to="/" /> {/* this could also redirect to a 404 or 403 page */}
      </Switch>
    );

    if (this.props.isAuthenticated) {
      routes = (
        <Switch>
          <Switch>
            <Route path="/orders" component={Orders} />
            <Route path="/checkout" component={Checkout} />
            <Route path="/logout" component={Logout} />
            <Route path="/burger" exact component={BurgerBuilder} />
            <Redirect from="/" to="/burger" />
          </Switch>
        </Switch>
      );
    }

    return (
      <div>
        <Layout>
          {routes}
        </Layout>
      </div>
    );
  }
}

const mapStateToProps = (state) => {
  return {
    isAuthenticated: state.auth.token !== null,
  };
};

...etc...

export default withRouter(connect(mapStateToProps, mapDispatchToProps)(App));

If the results from the backend are not filtered, there is a risk that data belonging to other users will be displayed to the current user. Consequently we want to make sure we only return the current user's data.

In the case of Firebase, this is achieved using the backend's REST API; specifically, the orderBy and equalTo properties.

Firebase Configuration

To enable this filtering in Firebase, an additional .indexOn rule must be added to the database rules:

{
  "rules": {
    "ingredients": {
      ".read": "true",
      ".write": "true",
    },
    "orders": {
      ".read": "auth != null",
      ".write": "auth != null",
      ".indexOn": ["userId"]
    }
  }
}

Note that .indexOn can accept an array of keys to index, although in this case we are only interested in userId.

Code Example

actions/order.js

Append &orderBy="key"&equalTo="value" to the API (note the double-quotes!). In this case, the key is userId.

...etc...

export const fetchOrders = (token, userId) => {
  return (dispatch) => {
    dispatch(fetchOrdersStart());
    
    const queryParams = '?auth=' + token + '&orderBy="userId"&equalTo="' + userId + '"';
    axios
      .get('/orders.json' + queryParams)
      .then((response) => {
          ...etc...
        }
        
        dispatch(fetchOrdersSuccess(fetchedOrders));
      })
      .catch((error) => {
        dispatch(fetchOrdersFail(error));
      });
  };
};

ContactData.js

Ensure that the userId is included in the order data sent to the backend.

...etc...

class ContactData extends Component {
  
  ...etc...
  
  orderHandler = (event) => {
    ...etc...

    const order = {
      ...etc...
      userId: this.props.userId,
    };

    this.props.onOrderBurger(order, this.props.token);
  };

  ...etc...
}

const mapStateToProps = (state) => {
  return {
    ...etc...
    userId: state.auth.userId,
  };
};

...etc...

Orders.js

Ensure that userId is included in data passed to the database query

...etc...

class Orders extends Component {
  componentDidMount() {
    this.props.onFetchOrders(this.props.token, this.props.userId);
  }

  ...etc...
}

const mapStateToProps = (state) => {
  return {
    ...etc...
    userId: state.auth.userId,
  };
};

const mapDispatchToProps = (dispatch) => {
  return {
    onFetchOrders: (token, userId) => dispatch(actions.fetchOrders(token, userId)),
  };
};

export default connect(mapStateToProps, mapDispatchToProps)(withErrorHandler(Orders, axios));

Further Information

The basic test implementation revolves around the following functions provided by Jest:

describe(): This describes the test bundle, and contains all the tests in the bundle
it(): This describes and performs a single test.
expect(): This evaluates the test.

And the following functions provided by Enzyme:

shallow(): This renders the component and its immediate children, but it doesn't render any deeper.
find(): This returns a list of the instances of the specified component that were output during rendering.

For example:

NavigationItems.test.js (the test.js suffix is required, so that it can be identified as containing tests)

import React from 'react';
import { configure, shallow } from 'enzyme';
import Adapter from 'enzyme-adapter-react-16';

import NavigationItems from './NavigationItems';
import NavigationItem from './NavigationItem/NavigationItem';

// connects Enzyme to the test
configure({ adapter: new Adapter() });

describe('<NavigationItems />', () => {
  it('should render two <NavigationItem /> elements if not authenticated', () => {
    // shallow() renders the component and its immediate children, but it doesn't render any deeper.
    const wrapper = shallow(<NavigationItems />);

    // expect() evaluates whether the specified test was successful (true/false)
    // find() returns a list of the instances of the specified component
    expect(wrapper.find(NavigationItem)).toHaveLength(2);
  });
  
  it('should render three <NavigationItem /> elements if authenticated', () => {  
    const wrapper = shallow(<NavigationItems authenticated />);
    expect(wrapper.find(NavigationItem)).toHaveLength(3);
  });
});

Tests are run using the npm test command. This is run on the command line and, after some initialization, produces an output similar to the following:

 PASS  src/components/Navigation/NavigationItems/NavigationItems.test.js
  <NavigationItems />
    ✓ should render two <NavigationItem /> elements if not authenticated (18ms)
    ✓ should render three <NavigationItem /> elements if authenticated (6ms)

Test Suites: 1 passed, 1 total
Tests:       2 passed, 2 total
Snapshots:   0 total
Time:        2.589s
Ran all test suites related to changed files.

Watch Usage: Press w to show more.

As can be seen, this lists the descriptions of the tests being run, followed by statistics regarding the results of the tests.

The test runner will now monitor the tests and re-run them if it identifies any changes (in either the tests or codebase).

NOTE: If you encounter an error similar to Error: Invariant failed: You should not use <Route> outside a <Router>, delete the src\App.test.js file.

A slightly more refined test implementation can be achieved with the following functions:

beforeEach(): This is one of several global functions provided by Jest. In this case, the function is called before each test.
- For further information on Jest globals, see here: https://jestjs.io/docs/en/api
setProps(): This is a function exposed by Enzyme that allows props to be passed to a test (in the form of a Javascript object).
- This is one of many functions exposed by the shallow() rendering API; a full list can be found here: https://enzymejs.github.io/enzyme/docs/api/shallow.html

In addition, the expect() function provided by Jest exposes many "matchers" that can be used to validate tests. A full list of these can be found here: https://jestjs.io/docs/en/expect.

For example:

NavigationItems.test.js

import React from 'react';
import { configure, shallow } from 'enzyme';
import Adapter from 'enzyme-adapter-react-16';

import NavigationItems from './NavigationItems';
import NavigationItem from './NavigationItem/NavigationItem';

// connects Enzyme to the test
configure({ adapter: new Adapter() });

describe('<NavigationItems />', () => {
  let wrapper;

  beforeEach(() => {
    // factor out the shallow() function since it is common to all tests
    wrapper = shallow(<NavigationItems />);
  });

  it('should render two <NavigationItem /> elements if not authenticated', () => {
    expect(wrapper.find(NavigationItem)).toHaveLength(2);
  });

  it('should render three <NavigationItem /> elements if authenticated', () => {
    // pass props using setProps()
    wrapper.setProps({ 
      isAuthenticated: true 
    });
    expect(wrapper.find(NavigationItem)).toHaveLength(3);
  });
  
  it('test that the logout <NavigationItem /> element is rendered if authenticated', () => {
    wrapper.setProps({ isAuthenticated: true });

    expect(wrapper.contains(<NavigationItem link="/logout">Logout</NavigationItem>)).toEqual(true);
  });
});

Although Redux containers deal with state rather than props, a container can be tested via props by wrapping the default export with connect() (so that the state can be converted to props) and also marking the container component as an export.

NOTE: that all props must be initialized including functions exposed by the props.

For example:

BurgerBuilder.js

import React, { Component } from 'react';
import { connect } from 'react-redux';

...etc...

export class BurgerBuilder extends Component {
  state = {
    purchasing: false,
  };

  //
  componentDidMount() {
    this.props.onInitIngredients();
  }

  ...etc...
}

const mapStateToProps = (state) => {
  if (state) {
    return {
      ...etc...
    };
  } else {
    return null;
  }
};

const mapDispatchToProps = (dispatch) => {
  return {
    ...etc...
  };
};

export default connect(mapStateToProps, mapDispatchToProps)(withErrorHandler(BurgerBuilder, axios));

The following is an example of test that might be written for the above code:

BurgerBuilder.test.js

import React from 'react';
import { configure, shallow } from 'enzyme';
import Adapter from 'enzyme-adapter-react-16';

import { BurgerBuilder } from './BurgerBuilder';
import BuildControls from './BuildControls';

// connects enzyme to the test
configure({ adapter: new Adapter() });

describe('<BurgerBuilder />', () => {
  let wrapper;

  beforeEach(() => {
    // for the onInitIngredients() prop, just pass in a dummy function
    wrapper = shallow(<BurgerBuilder onInitIngredients={() => {} } />);
  });

  it('should render <BuildControls /> when receving ingredients', () => {
    wrapper.setProps({
      ingredients: { salad: 0 },
    });
    expect(wrapper.find(BuildControls)).toHaveLength(1);
  });
});

We don't want to test complex chains of actions, reducers and state. All we really want to test are the reducers.

Testing reducers is relatively straightforward since we don't need to worry about rendering (and this don't need enzyme).

For example, to test the authentication reducer:

auth.js

...etc...

const initialState = {
  userId: null,
  token: null,
  error: null,
  loading: false,
  authRedirectPath: '/',
};

const authSuccess = (state, action) => {
  return updateObject(state, {
    userId: action.userId,
    token: action.token,
    error: null,
    loading: false,
  });
};

...etc...

const reducer = (state = initialState, action) => {
  switch (action.type) {
    case actionTypes.AUTH_SUCCESS: {
      return authSuccess(state, action);
    }
    ...etc...
  }
};

export default reducer;

A test for this might be the following:

auth.test.js

import reducer from './auth';
import * as actionTypes from '../actions/actionTypes';

describe('auth reducer', () => {
  it('should return the initial state', () => {
    expect(reducer(undefined, {})).toEqual({
      userId: null,
      token: null,
      error: null,
      loading: false,
      authRedirectPath: '/',
    });
  });

  it('should store the token upon login', () => {
    expect(
      reducer(
        {
          userId: null,
          token: null,
          error: null,
          loading: false,
          authRedirectPath: '/',
        },
        {
          type: actionTypes.AUTH_SUCCESS,
          token: 'some-token',
          userId: 'some-user-id',
        }
      )
    ).toEqual({
      userId: 'some-user-id',
      token: 'some-token',
      error: null,
      loading: false,
      authRedirectPath: '/',
    });
  });
});

The following details how to create a React project without using create-react-app.

Create a new folder
If using git, add a .gitignore (see below)
Run npm init (to enable support for NodeJS; this will create an initial package.json file)
Run npm install --save-dev webpack webpack-dev-server webpack-cli
Create a src folder
Create src/index.html
If using VS Code, in the empty index.html file type html:5 and click return. This will add boiler-plate HTML code to the file.
Add the following to the <body /> of the HTML: <div id="root"></div> (see below)
Now add the following to the src folder:
- assets folder
- components folder
- containers folder
- index.js (see below)
- index.css (see below)
- App.js (see below)
Install root dependencies: npm install react react-dom react-router-dom
Create the app.

.gitignore

node_modules
.DS_Store
/dist

src/index.html

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang="en">
  <head>
    <meta charset="UTF-8" />
    <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0" />
    <title>React App</title>
  </head>
  <body>
    <div id="root"></div>
  </body>
</html>

src/index.css

body {
  margin: 0;
  padding: 0;
  font-family: sans-serif;
}

src/index.js

import React from 'react';
import ReactDOM from 'react-dom';
import { BrowserRouter } from 'react-router-dom';

import './index.css';
import App from './App';

const app = (
  <BrowserRouter>
    <App />
  </BrowserRouter>
);

ReactDOM.render(app, document.getElementById('root'));

src/App.js

import React, { Component } from 'react';
import { Link } from 'react-router-dom';

// if require lazy-loading
import asyncComponent from './hoc/asyncComponent';

const AsyncComp = asyncComponent(() => {
  return import('./LazyLoadedComponent');
});

class App extends Component {
  render() {
    return (
      <div>
        ...etc...
      </div>
    );
  }
}

Add "start": "webpack-dev-server" to "scripts" in package.json

Create the following file in the same folder as package.json: webpack.config.js

The following example demonstrates the bare minimum config to get Webpack to run. Full documentation for Webpack can be found here:

https://webpack.js.org/guides/

webpack.config.js

// NodeJS syntax

// NodeJS package
const path = require('path'); 

module.exports = {
  mode: 'development',
  // entry point
  entry: './src/index.js',
  output: {
    // __dirname = absolute path for folder containing webpack.config.js
    // dist = folder under __dirname where output is to be written
    path: path.resolve(__dirname, 'dist'),
    // name of output file
    filename: 'bundle.js',
    publicPath: '',
  },
  // controls how source maps are created (to aid debugging)
  // check official docs for further options
  devtool: 'cheap-module-eval-source-map',
};

Babel is a third-party library that transpiles JavaScript code. Specifically, it converts next-gen JavaScript code (including JSX) to older code that can be understood by older browsers.

For further documentation on Babel, see here:

https://babeljs.io/docs/en/

The packages installed depend on the exact configuration being used. In this case:

Install: npm install --save-dev @babel/core @babel/preset-env @babel/preset-react @babel/preset-stage-2 babel-loader @babel/plugin-proposal-class-properties

To enable Babel, it must be added as a module in the Webpack config:

webpack.config.js

...etc...

module.exports = {
  ...etc...
  
  module: {
    rules: [
      {
        // for all .js files
        test: /\.js$/,
        // (but exclude anything in node_modules)
        exclude: /node_modules/,
        // process all found files using this loader
        loader: 'babel-loader',
      },
    ],
  },
};

To configure Babel, a .babelrc is added to the project:

.babelrc

{
  "presets": [
    [
      "@babel/preset-env",
      {
        "targets": {
          // browsers with more than 1% of market share,
          // or the last 2 versions
          "browsers": ["> 1%", "last 2 versions"]
        }
      }
    ],
    // presets for React plugins 
    "@babel/preset-react"
  ],
  // plugins to perform additional processing of code
  "plugins": [
    // prevents errors due to code that is only at the
    // proposal stage and not officially supported
    "@babel/plugin-proposal-class-properties"
  ]
}

Babel Polyfill

The current setup won't support all browsers theoretically supported by React. Features like Promises and Object.assign() are missing in older browsers - especially in IE.

Support for these browsers can by added using a polyfill (a package which provides these features for older browsers).

The Babel docs explain how you can take advantage of Babel's built-in "Polyfill auto injecting" feature: https://babeljs.io/docs/en/babel-polyfill

First, install the following two packages:

core-js
regenerator-runtime

Install: npm install core-js regenerator-runtime

Then, change the config of your @babel/preset-env babel preset in the .babelrc file:

"presets": [ ["@babel/preset-env", { "targets": { "browsers": [ "> 1%", "last 2 versions" ] }, "useBuiltIns": "usage" }], ... ],

.babelrc

{
  "presets": [
    [
      "@babel/preset-env",
      {
        "targets": {
          // browsers with more than 1% of market share,
          // or the last 2 versions
          "browsers": ["> 1%", "last 2 versions"]
        },
        "useBuiltIns": "usage"
      }
    ],
    
    ...etc...
  ],
  
  ...etc...
}

The CSS loader actually has four components:

css-loader: analyzes css imports
style-loader: takes all of the found css and injects it into an HTML page
postcss-loader: allows styles to be transformed using plugins
autoprefixer: a plugin to parse CSS and add vendor prefixes to CSS rules

For further information on PostCSS and Autoprefixer, see here:

https://postcss.org/

Install: npm install --save-dev style-loader css-loader postcss-loader autoprefixer

webpack.config.js

const autoprefixer = require('autoprefixer'); // NodeJS package

...etc...

module.exports = {
  ...etc...
  
  module: {
    rules: [
      ...etc...
      {
        // for all .css files
        test: /\.css$/,
        // (but exclude anything in node_modules)
        exclude: /node_modules/,
        // process all found files using these loaders
        use: [ // mutiple loaders
          { loader: 'style-loader' },
          { 
            loader: 'css-loader', options: {
              importLoaders: 1,
              modules: {
                localIdentName: '[name]__[local]__[hash:base64:5]'
              }
            }
          },
          {
            loader: 'postcss-loader',
            options: {
              ident: 'postcss',
              plugins: () => [autoprefixer],
            },
          },
        ]
      },
    ],
  },
};

In addition, Autoprefixer requires that the list of browsers to be targeted be added to the package.json file:

package.json

...etc...

  "license": "ISC",
  "browserslist": "> 1%, last 2 versions", // same as in .babelrc
  "devDependencies": {

...etc...

Processing assets that need to be referenced by URL (such as images) is done using url-loader. If files are below a set file size limit, url-loader inlines them within the JavaScript files using base64 encoding (rather than uploading them as separate files). This is typically used for image files. It provides performance advantages if an app contains many small files, since it avoids repeated server requests when the app is loaded.

If the files exceed the file size limit, url-loader defers to file-loader, which uploads each file separately rather than inlining them. For large files, the performance benefits of inlining them can be lost since the JavaScript can get very large.

Install: npm install --save-dev url-loader file-loader

webpack.config.js

...etc...

module.exports = {
  ...etc...
  
  module: {
    rules: [
      ...etc...
      {
        // for all image files
        test: /\.(png|jpe?g|gif)$/,
        // (but exclude anything in node_modules)
        exclude: /node_modules/,
        // process all found files using this loader
        // for demo purposes, options are specified using
        // an alternative, inline syntax.
        // limit = max image size in kb
        // name = output path
        loader: 'url-loader?limit=8192&name=images/[name].[ext]',
      },
    ],
  },
};

Once all of the preceding file transformations have been completed, the results are passed to a final transformation that injects them into the app HTML.

Install: npm install --save-dev html-webpack-plugin

The html-webpack-plugin is instantiated in the plugins array, which is separate to the module array.

webpack.config.js

const HtmlWebpackPlugin = require('html-webpack-plugin');

...etc...

module.exports = {
  ...etc...
  
  module: {
    ...etc...
  },
  plugins: [
    new HtmlWebpackPlugin({
      // file to be used as basis for app
      template: __dirname + '/src/index.html',
      // file to be generated by the plugin
      filename: 'index.html',
      // where to inject the results
      inject: 'body',
    }),
  ],
};

Setting Up The Project

The following details how to create a Next.js-based project without using create-react-app.

Create a new folder
If using git, add a .gitignore (see below)
Run npm init (to enable support for NodeJS; this will create an initial package.json file)
Install root dependencies: npm install react react-dom next
In package.json, add the scripts required by Next.js (see below)
Create a .\pages folder in the root folder
- Note that the URL scheme maps to the folder scheme under the pages folder. So, .\pages\auth\user.js will map to https://localhost:3000/auth/user.js.
All pages are placed under this folder (or its sub-folders).
- React components are typically placed outside of this folder (but imported into the pages as normal).
Start the development server using the following command, provided by Next:
- npm run dev

.gitignore

node_modules
.DS_Store
/dist

package.json

{
  ...etc...
  
  "scripts": {
    "dev": "next",
    "build": "next build",
    "start": "NODE_ENV=production next start",
    "prod": "npm run build; npm run start"
  },
  
    ...etc...
}

Pages are typically created using stateless functional components, although class components and functional components that use useState() will also work.

To handle linking between pages, Next.js provides components that can be used in place of those provided by React. For example:

<Link href="url"><a>Text</a></Link> (imported using: import Link from 'next/link';)
<button onClick={() => Router.push('url')} }>Text</button> (imported using: import Router from 'next/router';)

For example:

pages/index.js

import React from 'react';
import Link from 'next/link';
import Router from 'next/router';

const indexPage = () => (
  <div>
    <h1>The Main Page</h1>
    <p>
      Go to{' '}
      <Link href="/auth">
        <a>Auth</a>
      </Link>
    </p>
    <button
      onClick={() => {
        Router.push('/auth');
      } }
    >
      Got to Auth
    </button>
  </div>
);

export default indexPage;

pages/auth/index.js

import React from 'react';

const authIndexPage = () => (
  <div>
    <h1>The Auth Index Page</h1>
  </div>
);

export default authIndexPage;

Components are created outside of the ./pages folder (for example under ./components).

For example:

components/User.js

import React from 'react';

const user = (props) => (
  <div>
    <h1>{props.name}</h1>
    <p>Age: {props.age}</p>
  </div>
);

export default user;

These can then be imported as normal into the pages:

pages/auth/index.js

import React from 'react';

import User from '../../components/User';

const authIndexPage = () => (
  <div>
    <h1>The Auth Index Page</h1>
    <User name="Max" age={28} />
  </div>
);

export default authIndexPage;

The latest version of Next.js has support for CSS modules, however previous versions did not.
Next.js has always supported other forms of styling, such as Inline Styles and Radium.
It also supports styled-jsx, which provides isolated scope CSS using a <style /> tag.
- https://github.com/vercel/styled-jsx

User.js

import React from 'react';

import classes from './User.module.css';

const user = (props) => (
  <div className={classes.User}>
    <h1>{props.name}</h1>
    <p>Age: {props.age}</p>
  </div>
);

export default user;

User.module.css

.User {
  border: 1px solid #eee;
  box-shadow: 0 2px 3px #ccc;
  padding: 20px;
  text-align: center;
}

404 errors, which can happen frequently and thus put a strain on the server, are typically handled by placing a 404.js file in the root of the ./pages folder. A 404 error page is then statically generated at build time.

pages/404.js

export default function Custom404() {
  return <h1>404 - Page Not Found</h1>;
}

For handling 500 (or other) error codes, a default page is provided by Next. This page is generated dynamically so that details of the error can be passed to it (hence why it is separate from the 404 error page).

pages/getStarCount.js

import Error from 'next/error';

function tryParse(suspect) {
  ...etc... 
  return return { value: parsedSuspect, valid: isValid };
}
JSON['tryParse'] = tryParse;

export async function getServerSideProps() {
  const res = await fetch('https://api.github.com/repos/vercel/next.js');

  const statusCode = res.statusCode;
  let errorCode = res.ok ? false : statusCode ? statusCode : 500;

  // initially get response as text, in case json wasn't returned
  const resText = await res.text();
  // then try to convert JSON to object
  const result = JSON.tryParse(resText);
  const resObj = result.value;

  // if conversion was successful, use resObj
  let count = 0;
  if (result.valid) {
    count = resObj.stargazers_count;
    if (!count) count = 0;
  }

  return {
    props: { errorCode, stars: count, errorDetails: resObj },
  };
}

export default function Page({ errorCode, stars, resObj }) {
  if (errorCode) {
    return (
      <Error statusCode={errorCode} title={JSON.stringify(resObj)} />
    );
  }

  return <div>Next stars: {stars}</div>;
}

Alternatively, the default error page can be overridden by placing an _error.js file in the root of the ./pages folder. This must be imported instead of next/error.

pages/_error.js

const Error = (props) => {
  return (
    <p>
      {props.statusCode
        ? `An error ${props.statusCode} occurred on server: ${props.metadata}`
        : 'An error occurred on client'}
    </p>
  );
};

Error.getInitialProps = ({ res, err }) => {
  const statusCode = res ? res.statusCode : err ? err.statusCode : 404
  return { statusCode, metadata: err }
}

export default Error

pages/getStarCount.js

// import _error, rather than next/error;
import ErrorPage from './_error';

...etc...

export default function Page({ errorCode, stars, errorDetails }) {
  if (errorCode) {
    return (
      <ErrorPage
        statusCode={errorCode}
        title={'Something went wrong'}
        metadata={JSON.stringify(errorDetails)}
      />
    );
  }

  return <div>Next stars: {stars}</div>;
}

One of the challenges for SEO is that search engine crawlers will typically not register content that is not rendered immediately when the page loads. This is one of the main reasons why the following lifecycle hooks have been added by Next.js.

The following is an example of a page that doesn't use hooks (it simply fetches the data as necessary whenever the page is loaded). Implementing this page, while sure to always display the latest data, gives slow performance and a potentially heavy impact on the backend API. Compare with this with the other options discussed in the next sections.

Example without Next.js Hooks (uses useEffect())

// users/page.jsx
// data fetched from an external data source with axios
import { useEffect, useState } from 'react';
import axios from 'axios';

const Users = () => {
  const [users, setUsers] = useState([]);
  const [loading, setLoading] = useState(true);
  const [error, setError] = useState(false);
  const fetchData = async () => {
    await axios.get('https://jsonplaceholder.typicode.com/users')
      .then(res => {
        setError(false);
        setUsers(prevState => [...prevState, ...res.data]);
      })
      .catch(() => {
        setError(true);
      })
      .finally(() => {
        setLoading(false);
      });
  };

  useEffect(() => {
    fetchData();
  }, []);

  return (
    <section>
      <header>
        <h1>List of users</h1>
      </header>
      {!error && loading && <div>Loading data...</div>}
      {error && <div>There was an error.</div>}
      {!error && users && (
        <table>
          <thead>
            <tr>
              <th>Username</th>
              <th>Email</th>
              <th>Name</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody>
            {users.map((user, key) => (
              <tr key={key}>
                <td>{user.username}</td>
                <td>{user.email}</td>
                <td>{user.name}</td>
              </tr>
            ))}
          </tbody>
        </table>
      )}
    </section>
  );
};

export default Users;

Behaviour:

Emitted File Size: 1.11 kB
Page Type: Static
- Client always fetches data from backend API and renders it.
XMLHttpRequest: Yes (fetch(App) + XHR(JSON), then XHR(JSON))
Slow fetch; slow render.

getInitialProps() runs on both the server and the client. Its goal is to present a static page on first hit, but then act in a traditional, dynamic manner for subsequent accesses.

The first time the page is requested (e.g. if the user manually enters the URL or refreshes the page), the initial props (hence the name) are obtained by the server querying the backend API and then returning a rendered HTML page to the client. Subsequent renders of the page are done on the client-side, with props being fetched from the backend API by the client. Typically, this method will access the data store API via an intermediate API layer (to avoid publically exposing the low-level backend API).

NOTE 1: This method has been deprecated in favour of the other hooks, however it is still commonly used. It is recommended that future development should use the other hooks.

NOTE 2: If this method is present in a page, the page will always be treated as server-side (i.e. it will not be pre-rendered as HTML).

Example:

// users/page.jsx
// data fetched from an external data source with axios
// using `getInitialProps`
import axios from 'axios';

const fetchData = async () =>
  await axios
    .get('http://jsonplaceholder.typicode.com/users')
    .then((res) => ({
      error: null,
      users: res.data,
    }))
    .catch((error) => ({
      error: JSON.stringify(error),
      users: null,
    }));

const UsersPage = ({ users, error }) => {
  return (
    <section>
      <header>
        <h1>List of users</h1>
      </header>
      {error && <div>There was an error: {error}</div>}
      {!error && users && (
        <table>
          <thead>
            <tr>
              <th>Username</th>
              <th>Email</th>
              <th>Name</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody>
            {users.map((user, key) => (
              <tr key={key}>
                <td>{user.username}</td>
                <td>{user.email}</td>
                <td>{user.name}</td>
              </tr>
            ))}
          </tbody>
        </table>
      )}
    </section>
  );
};

UsersPage.getInitialProps = async () => {
  const data = await fetchData();

  return { users: data.users, error: data.error };
};

export default UsersPage;

Behaviour:

Emitted File Size: 670 bytes
Page Type: Lambda (dynamic)
- Initially, server fetches data and renders page.
- Then, client fetches data and renders page.
XMLHttpRequest: Yes (Initially fetch(App), then XHR(JSON))
Initial fast fetch & fast render; subsequent slow fetch and slow render.

getServerSideProps() is a lifecycle hook that runs only on the server.

The first time the page is hit, a fully rendered HTML page is returned (effectively presenting a static page to the world). Subsequent accesses will return only the props, in JSON format, which the client then uses to update the previously received HTML. Every time the page is rendered, the server-side function will run. This is subtely different from getInitialProps(), which only calls the server-side function on first hit.

Because the function runs on the server, it can access the backend directly (and locally), without an intervening API layer, which can have performance advantages when accessing data infrequently. It also improves security by reducing the information passed back-and-forth, and improves compatibility (since the data fetching process is less dependent on the browser).

NOTE 1: The downside of this method is that it can impact performance if data must be fetched frequently. In this case, the recommended solution is to use getServerSideProps() for first access, and then useSWR() for further accesses.

NOTE 2: If this method is present in a page, the page will always be treated as server-side (i.e. it will not be pre-rendered as HTML).

Example:

// users/page.jsx
// data fetched from an external data source with axios
// using `getServerSideProps`
import axios from 'axios';

const fetchData = async () => await axios.get('https://jsonplaceholder.typicode.com/users')
  .then(res => ({
    error: false,
    users: res.data,
  }))
  .catch(() => ({
      error: true,
      users: null,
    }),
  );

const Users = ({ users, error }) => {
  return (
    <section>
      <header>
        <h1>List of users</h1>
      </header>
      {error && <div>There was an error.</div>}
      {!error && users && (
        <table>
          <thead>
            <tr>
              <th>Username</th>
              <th>Email</th>
              <th>Name</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody>
            {users.map((user, key) => (
              <tr key={key}>
                <td>{user.username}</td>
                <td>{user.email}</td>
                <td>{user.name}</td>
              </tr>
            ))}
          </tbody>
        </table>
      )}
    </section>
  );
};

export const getServerSideProps = async () => {
  const data = await fetchData();

  return {
    props: data,
  };
}

export default Users;

Behaviour:

Emitted File Size: 440 bytes
Page Type: Lambda (dynamic)
- Initially, server fetches data and renders page.
- Then, server fetches data and client renders page.
XMLHttpRequest: No (Initially fetch(App), then fetch(JSON))
Initial fast fetch and fast render; subsequent slower fetch and slower render.

getStaticProps() always serves a pre-rendered version of the page from the server. The rendering happens at build time, which means the page can be effectively considered a traditional, static HTML page at runtime.

This approach is particularly useful for SEO and/or ultra-fast access to a page is required. Also, it avoids expensive, real-time data transformations, or exposure of private APIs.

The chief downside to this approach is that the page only presents data captured at build-time; it cannot present data that changes regularly.

NOTE: This hook only works properly in a production build. In a development build, there will be an additional XHR call at runtime to fetch the data.

Example:

// users/page.jsx
// data fetched from an external data source with axios
// using `getStaticProps`
import axios from 'axios';

const fetchData = async () => await axios.get('https://jsonplaceholder.typicode.com/users')
  .then(res => ({
    error: false,
    users: res.data,
  }))
  .catch(() => ({
      error: true,
      users: null,
    }),
  );

const Users = ({ users, error }) => {
  return (
    <section>
      <header>
        <h1>List of users</h1>
      </header>
      {error && <div>There was an error.</div>}
      {!error && users && (
        <table>
          <thead>
            <tr>
              <th>Username</th>
              <th>Email</th>
              <th>Name</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody>
            {users.map((user, key) => (
              <tr key={key}>
                <td>{user.username}</td>
                <td>{user.email}</td>
                <td>{user.name}</td>
              </tr>
            ))}
          </tbody>
        </table>
      )}
    </section>
  );
};

export const getStaticProps = async () => {
  const data = await fetchData();

  return {
    props: data,
  };
}

export default Users;

Behaviour:

Emitted File Size: 442 bytes
Page Type: Static
- Returns static HTML.
XMLHttpRequest: No (Initially fetch(App), then from cache)
Fast fetch; ultra-fast render.

useSWR() can be thought of as the replacement for the client-side aspects of getInitialProps(). It handles caching, revalidation, focus tracking, refetching on interval, and more. The name SWR derives from stale-while-revalidate, an HTTP cache invalidation strategy that first returns the data from cache (stale), then sends a fetch request (revalidate) and finally, if the data has changed, returns the up-to-date data.

This approach means that pages render fast initially (albeit with potentially out-of-date data), but can subsequently be updated when the latest data is available.

By default, revalidation (ie. re-fetch to check data state) is performed under the following conditions:

When the component is mounted
When the window is focused (with a minimum interval of 5 seconds)
When the browser regains a network connection

If it also possible to configure useSWR to constantly poll the data source at a set interval using the refreshInterval configuration option.

For further details regarding the various configuration options available, see the useSWR documentation:

https://github.com/vercel/swr

// users/page.jsx
// data fetched from an external data source with axios
// using `useSWR`
import useSWR from 'swr';

import axios from 'axios';

const fetchData = async (url) =>
  // errors are handled by useSWR
  await axios.get(url).then((res) => ({
    users: res.data,
  }));

const UsersPage = () => {
  const { data, error } = useSWR(
    'http://jsonplaceholder.typicode.com/users',
    fetchData,
    // optionally set a refreshInterval
    // {
    //   refreshInterval: 5000,
    // }
  );

  let users = null;
  if (data) users = data.users;

  return (
    <section>
      <header>
        <h1>List of users</h1>
      </header>
      {!error && !users && <div>Loading data...</div>}
      {error && <div>There was an error: {error}</div>}
      {!error && users && (
        <table>
          <thead>
            <tr>
              <th>Username</th>
              <th>Email</th>
              <th>Name</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody>
            {users.map((user, key) => (
              <tr key={key}>
                <td>{user.username}</td>
                <td>{user.email}</td>
                <td>{user.name}</td>
              </tr>
            ))}
          </tbody>
        </table>
      )}
    </section>
  );
};

export default UsersPage;

Behaviour:

Emitted File Size: 4.46 kB
Page Type: Static
- Fetches data from backend API, which is rendered on client.
XMLHttpRequest: Yes (Initially fetch(App) + XHR(JSON), then from cache + XHR(JSON))
Initial slow fetch & slow render; later ultra-fast render, followed by slow fetch, then fast render if data changed.

A simple way to hide/show a component is to use the display CSS property:

Modal.css

.Modal {
  position: fixed;
  z-index: 200;
  border: 1px solid #eee;
  box-shadow: 0 2px 2px #ccc;
  background-color: white;
  padding: 10px;
  text-align: center;
  box-sizing: border-box;
  top: 30%;
  left: 25%;
  width: 50%;
}

.ModalOpen {
  display: block;
}

.ModalClosed {
  display: none;
}

Modal.js

import React from 'react';

import './Modal.css';

const modal = (props) => {
  const cssClasses = ['Modal', props.show ? 'ModalOpen' : 'ModalClosed'];

  return (
    <div className={cssClasses.join(' ')}>
      <h1>A Modal</h1>
      <button className="Button" onClick={props.closed}>
        Dismiss
      </button>
    </div>
  );
};

export default modal;

App.js

import React, { Component } from 'react';

import './App.css';
import Modal from './components/Modal/Modal';

class App extends Component {
  state = {
    modalIsOpen: false,
  };

  showModal = () => {
    this.setState({ modalIsOpen: true });
  };

  closeModal = () => {
    this.setState({ modalIsOpen: false });
  };

  render() {
    return (
      <div className="App">
        <Modal show={this.state.modalIsOpen} closed={this.closeModal} />
        <button className="Button" onClick={this.showModal}>
          Open Modal
        </button>
      </div>
    );
  }
}

export default App;

An alternative approach is to use the CSS transition properties.

For further information regarding these, see here:

https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/CSS_Transitions/Using_CSS_transitions

Modal.css

.Modal {

  ...etc...

  transition: all 0.3s ease-out;
}

.ModalOpen {
  opacity: 1;
  transform: translateY(0);
}

.ModalClosed {
  opacity: 0;
  transform: translateY(-100%);
}

A more sophisticated approach is to use CSS animation keyframes, which allow much finer control of the behaviour.

For further information regarding these, see here:

https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/CSS_Animations/Using_CSS_animations

Modal.css

.Modal {

  ...etc...

  transition: all 0.3s ease-out;
}

.ModalOpen {
  animation: openModal 0.4s ease-out forwards;
}

.ModalClosed {
  animation: closeModal 0.4s ease-out forwards;
}

@keyframes openModal {
  0% {
    opacity: 0;
    transform: translateY(-100%);
  }
  50% {
    opacity: 1;
    transform: translateY(20%);
  }
  100% {
    opacity: 1;
    transform: translateY(0);
  }
}

@keyframes closeModal {
  0% {
    opacity: 1;
    transform: translateY(0);
  }
  50% {
    opacity: 0.8;
    transform: translateY(60%);
  }
  100% {
    opacity: 0;
    transform: translateY(-100%);
  }
}

Although CSS transitions and animations are fine for most simple cases, they have one potentially significant drawback: they always present in the page HTML regardless of whether they are shown or not. This could impact the performance of the page.

It would be better to take a more React approach and only embed the animated elements when they actually need to be displayed.

A naive implementation might be to use the modalIsOpen state to embed the component:

App.js

import React, { Component } from 'react';

import './App.css';
import Modal from './components/Modal/Modal';

class App extends Component {
  state = {
    modalIsOpen: false,
  };

  showModal = () => {
    this.setState({ modalIsOpen: true });
  };

  closeModal = () => {
    this.setState({ modalIsOpen: false });
  };

  render() {
    return (
      <div className="App">
        {this.state.modalIsOpen ? (
          <Modal show={this.state.modalIsOpen} closed={this.closeModal} />
        ) : null}
        <button className="Button" onClick={this.showModal}>
          Open Modal
        </button>
      </div>
    );
  }
}

export default App;

The main limitation with this approach is that the component will be removed instantly; it won't have time to display the animations.

A better approach would be to use tools provided by React to help with this.

The react-transition-group package is a community-produced package that exposes components to help entering and exiting transitions.

For further information about the package, see here:

https://reactcommunity.org/react-transition-group/
Install: npm install react-transition-group
Import: import Transition from 'react-transition-group/Transition'

For example, consider the following code where a button toggle the display of a <div>:

App.js

...etc...

class App extends Component {
  state = {
    showBlock: false,
  };

  render() {
    return (
      <div className="App">
        <button
          className="Button"
          onClick={() =>
            this.setState((prevState) => ({ showBlock: !prevState.showBlock }))
          }
        >
          Toggle
        </button>
        <br />
        {this.state.showBlock ? (
          <div
            style={ {
              backgroundColor: 'red',
              width: 100,
              height: 100,
              margin: 'auto',
            } }
          ></div>
        ) : null}
      </div>
    );
  }
}

export default App;

After installing react-transition-group, this can be refactored to be:

App.js

...etc...

import Transition from 'react-transition-group/Transition';

class App extends Component {

  ...etc...

  render() {
    return (
      <div className="App">
        
        ...etc...
        
        <Transition
          in={this.state.showBlock}
          timeout={1000}
          mountOnEnter
          unmountOnExit
        >
          {(state) => (
            <div
              style={ {
                ...etc...
                
                transition: 'opacity 1s ease-out',
                opacity: state === 'exiting' ? 0 : 1,
              } }
            ></div>
          )}
        </Transition>
      </div>
    );
  }
}

export default App;

Note that the Transition component has several properties. In this case they are:

in = the trigger for the transition
timeout = time between transitions in ms
mountOnEnter = "if in === true, add component to DOM"
unmountOnExit = "if in === false, remove component from DOM"

It also emits the state object (not to be confused with the state of the App), which can have one of four values:

'entering' (component is being displayed)
'entered' (component has been displayed)
'exiting' (component is being hidden)
'exited' (component has been hidden)

The state values are used to control which style properties are applied to the component.

If pattern is now applied to the Modal component, something like the following results:

Modal.js

import React from 'react';

import './Modal.css';

const modal = (props) => {
  const cssClasses = [
    'Modal',
    props.show === 'entering'
      ? 'ModalOpen'
      : props.show === 'exiting'
      ? 'ModalClosed'
      : null,
  ];
  
  return (
    <div className={cssClasses.join(' ')}>
      <h1>A Modal</h1>
      <button className="Button" onClick={props.closed}>
        Dismiss
      </button>
    </div>
  );
};

export default modal;

App.js

...etc...

import Transition from 'react-transition-group/Transition';

class App extends Component {

  ...etc...
  
  render() {
    return (
      <div className="App">
        <Transition
          in={this.state.modalIsOpen}
          timeout={300}
          mountOnEnter
          unmountOnExit
        >
          {(state) => <Modal show={state} closed={this.closeModal} />}
        </Transition>
        <button className="Button" onClick={this.showModal}>
          Open Modal
        </button>
      </div>
    );
  }
}

export default App;

Of course, it is also possible to wrap the Transition in the Modal component, in the following manner:

Modal.js

import React from 'react';

import './Modal.css';

const modal = (props) => {

  return (
    <Transition in={props.show} timeout={1000} mountOnEnter unmountOnExit>
      {(state) => {
        const cssClasses = [
          'Modal',
          state === 'entering'
            ? 'ModalOpen'
            : state === 'exiting'
            ? 'ModalClosed'
            : null,
        ];

        return (
          <div className={cssClasses.join(' ')}>
            <h1>A Modal</h1>
            <button className="Button" onClick={props.closed}>
              Dismiss
            </button>
          </div>
        );
      } }
    </Transition>
  );
};

export default modal;

App.js

...etc...

class App extends Component {

  ...etc...
  
  render() {
    return (
      <div className="App">
        <Modal show={this.state.modalIsOpen} closed={this.closeModal} />
        <button className="Button" onClick={this.showModal}>
          Open Modal
        </button>
      </div>
    );
  }
}

export default App;

Care should be taken when setting the timings for animations. Timings can be set in several places, for example:

The timeout property of the Transition component.
- Determines how long each state ('entering' & 'exiting') will be held before transitioning.
- If this is much shorter than
The duration property of the animation CSS property.
- Determines how long the animation will last.
The duration property of the transition CSS property.

If the transition time is much shorter than the animation time, the animation will be cut-off too soon.

It is also possible to set different timings for the enter and exit transitions. This is done in the following manner:

Modal.js

...etc...

const animationTiming = {
  enter: 400,
  exit: 1000,
};

const modal = (props) => {
  ...etc...

  return (
    <Transition
      ...etc...
      timeout={animationTiming}
    >
      ...etc...
    </Transition>
  );
};

export default modal;

The Transition components provides events for specific parts of the transitions:

onEnter = Before entering 'entering' mode
onEntering = Upon entering 'entering' mode
onEntered = Upon entering 'entered' mode
onExit = Before entering 'exiting' mode
onExiting = Upon entering 'exiting' mode
onExited = Upon entering 'exited' mode

  <Transition
    ...etc...
    
    onEnter={() => console.log('onEnter')}
    onEntering={() => console.log('onEntering')}
    onEntered={() => console.log('onEntered')}
    
    onExit={() => console.log('onExit')}
    onExiting={() => console.log('onExiting')}
    onExited={() => console.log('onExited')}
  >
    ...etc...
  </Transition>

Although the animation styling can be embedded in the JavaScript, as in the previous examples, it is often more convenient to be able to create some pre-defined CSS classes for the different animation states and ensure that these get attached depending on the state of the animation. This is the functionality provided by the CSSTransition component.

Essentially, CSSTransition replaces the need to embed the conditions for controlling the transition in the JavaScript file. Instead, these can be specified in a CSS file, which can be local or global, where they can be shared by other components.

Rather then specifying the transition conditions, a prefix is specified (can be anything). This identified CSS classes that relate to these transitions.

In the CSS file, the prefix is combined with well-known suffixes to indicate the applicable styles. The well-known suffixes are:

[prefix]-enter : appears for one frame at the start of the enter animation (use to initialize the animation, e.g. set initial opacity)
[prefix]-enter-active : controls the enter animation
[prefix]-exit : appears for one frame at the start of the exit animation (use to initialize the animation, e.g. set initial opacity)
[prefix]-exit-active : controls the exit animation

The following only apply to components that are hardcoded in the DOM (such as the <button> in App.js) and are only called the first time the component is mounted.

[prefix]-appear : appears for one frame at the start of the appear animation (use to initialize the animation, e.g. set initial opacity)
[prefix]-appear-active : controls the appear animation

Modal.js

Note the classNames prop added to the CSSTransition component.

...etc...

import CSSTransition from 'react-transition-group/CSSTransition';

...etc...

const modal = (props) => {
  return (
    <CSSTransition
      ...etc...
      
      {/* Note: classNames (plural), not className (singular) */}
      {/* Indicates the prefix for the CSS classes to be used for the transition */}
      classNames="fade-slide"
    >
      <div className="Modal">
        <h1>A Modal</h1>
        <button className="Button" onClick={props.closed}>
          Dismiss
        </button>
      </div>
    </CSSTransition>
  );
};

export default modal;

Modal.css

...etc...

.fade-slide-enter {
}

.fade-slide-enter-active {
  animation: openModal 0.4s ease-out forwards;
}

.fade-slide-exit {
}

.fade-slide-exit-active {
  animation: closeModal 1s ease-out forwards;
}

// ignored
.ModalOpen {}
.ModalClosed {}

...etc...

Customizing CSS Classnames

If there is a need to avoid using the standard [prefix]-[suffix] class names, custom class names can be used in the following manner:

Modal.js

Note that classNames prop added to the CSSTransition component.

...etc...

import CSSTransition from 'react-transition-group/CSSTransition';

...etc...

const modal = (props) => {
  return (
    <CSSTransition
      ...etc...
      
      classNames={ {
        enter: '',
        enterActive: 'ModalOpen',
        exit: '',
        exitActive: 'ModalClosed',
      } }
    >
      <div className="Modal">
        <h1>A Modal</h1>
        <button className="Button" onClick={props.closed}>
          Dismiss
        </button>
      </div>
    </CSSTransition>
  );
};

export default modal;

Modal.css

...etc...

.ModalOpen {
  animation: openModal 0.4s ease-out forwards;
}

.ModalClosed {
  animation: closeModal 1s ease-out forwards;
}

// ignored
.fade-slide-enter {}
.fade-slide-enter-active {}
.fade-slide-exit {}
.fade-slide-exit-active {}

...etc...

The TransitionGroup component can be used to animate lists. Note, however, that it can only wrap either the Transition or CSSTransition components (e.g. <li> must be wrapped in Transition or CSSTransition).

Essentially, the TransitionGroup controls the in prop of the child Transition or CSSTransition components. Other than that, these components behave as described above.

The TransitionGroup

List.js

import React, { Component } from 'react';
import TransitionGroup from 'react-transition-group/TransitionGroup';
import CSSTransition from 'react-transition-group/CSSTransition';

import './List.css';

class List extends Component {
  state = {
    items: [1, 2, 3],
  };

  addItemHandler = () => {
    this.setState((prevState) => {
      return {
        items: prevState.items.concat(prevState.items.length + 1),
      };
    });
  };

  removeItemHandler = (selIndex) => {
    this.setState((prevState) => {
      return {
        items: prevState.items.filter((item, index) => index !== selIndex),
      };
    });
  };

  render() {
    const listItems = this.state.items.map((item, index) => (
      <CSSTransition key={index} classNames="fade" timeout={300}>
        <li className="ListItem" onClick={() => this.removeItemHandler(index)}>
          {item}
        </li>
      </CSSTransition>
    ));

    return (
      <div>
        <button className="Button" onClick={this.addItemHandler}>
          Add Item
        </button>
        <p>Click Item to Remove.</p>
        <TransitionGroup component="ul" className="List">
          {listItems}
        </TransitionGroup>
      </div>
    );
  }
}

export default List;

List.css

.List {
  list-style: none;
  margin: 0 auto;
  padding: 0;
  width: 280px;
}

.ListItem {
  margin: 0;
  padding: 10px;
  box-sizing: border-box;
  width: 100%;
  border: 1px solid #521751;
  background-color: white;
  text-align: center;
  cursor: pointer;
}

.ListItem:hover,
.ListItem:active {
  background-color: #ccc;
}

.fade-enter {
  opacity: 0;
}

.fade-enter-active {
  opacity: 1;
  transition: opacity 0.3s ease-out;
}

.fade-exit {
  opacity: 1;
}

.fade-exit-active {
  opacity: 0;
  transition: opacity 0.3s ease-out;
}

App.js

...etc...

import List from './components/List/List';

class App extends Component {
  
  ...etc...

  render() {
    return (
      <div className="App">

        ...etc...

        <h3>Animating Lists</h3>
        <List />
      </div>
    );
  }
}

export default App;

The functions provided by Redux Saga are generally known as "effects", since they tend to trigger side-effects (actions other than those that update the store).

put()

This is a non-blocking function is the equivalent of Redux's dispatch().

The function passes an object to the middleware, which will forward it to the reducer, which can then update the store.

The object consists of a well-known type pattern and (optionally) any additional properties required by the reducer.

An example might be:

put({type: 'SET_INCREMENT', inc: 5})

This returns an object with the form { PUT: {type: 'SET_INCREMENT', inc: 5} } to the middleware.

The type is the trigger pattern that takeEvery() (or a similar function) is watching for.
The middleware will combine any other properties into a single action object before passing it to the reducer.

takeEvery()

takeEvery() is a non-blocking function that watches for objects passed to the middleware by put() and then checks if they have a specific type property. When the property is matched, a specific "saga" function is triggered.

An example might be:

yield takeEvery('SET_INCREMENT', function* setIncrementSaga(action) {
  yield put(actions.setIncrement(action.inc));
});

Any properties required by the saga function (e.g. inc in the above example) will be included in the object passed by put(). The middleware extracts these properties and passes them to the saga function as a single action object.

Under The Covers

The takeEvery() function is actually a wrapper on a more powerful, lower-level implementation that use the take() and fork() functions. An example of what the lower-level implementation might look like this is the following:

const takeEvery = (patternOrChannel, saga, ...args) => fork(function*() { // start function in parallel
  while (true) {
    const action = yield take(pattern) // wait for pattern to be matched and take() to yield an action
    yield fork(saga, ...args.concat(action)) // start action in parallel
    // loop back to take() and wait for pattern
  }
})

This approach allows takeEvery() to handle multiple saga functions in parallel, although there is no guarantee that the tasks will complete in the same order they were started.

Note that there is a similar function called takeLatest(), which will only allows the latest requested action to complete (all previously started ones will be canceled).

For finer control of the flow of actions, the lower-level take() function needs to be used.

take()

As noted above, the takeEvery() function is based on the take() function, which waits for a specified pattern to be passed by put() and then returns a specific saga function. Unlike takeEvery(), take() is a blocking function, which will wait until the pattern is matched.

One particular use of take() is if there is a desire to control the flow of actions, such as in the following example:

function* loginFlow() {
  while (true) {
    yield take('LOGIN') // wait for login
    // ... perform the login logic
    yield take('LOGOUT') // wait for logout
    // ... perform the logout logic
  }
}

In this case, 'LOGIN' will always be followed by 'LOGOUT', which in turn will always be followed by 'LOGIN', etc.

For further discussion of how to implement non-blocking flow control using take(), see here:

https://redux-saga.js.org/docs/advanced/NonBlockingCalls.html

call()

call() is a function that allows another function or generator to be passed to the middleware for execution.

For example, the following function:

server.doQuery(url, queryId)

could be written as:

call([server, "doQuery"], url, queryId)

One of the primary reasons why this is desirable is that it makes it much easier to test the generator.

call() returns an object with the form { CALL: {fn: [server, doQuery], args: [url, queryId]} } to the middleware. The middleware then invokes the function and evaluates the result. The subsequent behaviour depends upon the result:

If the result is a generator function, the parent generator will be suspended until the child generator completes. The parent will then resume with the value returned by the child.
If the result is a normal function that returns a promise, the parent generator will be suspended until the promise is settled. The parent will then resume with the value resolved by the promise.
If the result is neither a generator nor a promise, the result will be immediately returned and the parent generator will resume.

For comparison, if, rather than using call(), the function is yielded directly (yield doQuery(url, queryId)), doQuery() will be invoked first, with the result being returned to the middleware. Using call(), the middleware controls when the function is invoked.

delay()

delay() is the Redux Saga equivalent of setTimeout() and is a blocking function.

If an existing action creator looks like this:

actions/cleanUp.js

export const checkCloseWindow = (timeout) => {
  return dispatch => {
    setTimeout(() => {
      dispatch(closeWindow());
    }, timeout);
  };
};

export const closeWindow = () => {
  // close window
};

An alternative approach, using delay could be:

actions/cleanUp.js

export const checkCloseWindow = (timeout) => {
  return {
    type: 'CHECK_CLOSE_WINDOW',
    timeout: timeout
};

export const closeWindow = () => {
  // close window
};

sagas/actions.js

export {
  checkCloseWindowSaga
} from './cleanUp';

sagas/watcher.js

export function* watcher() {
  yield takeEvery('CHECK_CLOSE_WINDOW', checkCloseWindowSaga);
}

actions/actions.js

export {
  closeWindow
} from './cleanUp';

sagas/cleanUp.js

export function* checkCloseWindowSaga(action) {
  yield delay(action.timeout)
  yield put(actions.closeWindow);
}

fork()

As the name suggests, fork() launches Effects in parallel and is non-blocking. However, the parent Saga can only complete once all attached child effects have also completed.

Take, for example, the following:

import { fork, call, put, delay } from 'redux-saga/effects'
import api from './somewhere/api' // app specific
import { receiveData } from './somewhere/actions' // app specific

function* fetchAll() {
  const task1 = yield fork(fetchResource, 'users')
  const task2 = yield fork(fetchResource, 'comments')
  yield delay(1000)
}

function* fetchResource(resource) {
  const {data} = yield call(api.fetch, resource)
  yield put(receiveData(data))
}

function* main() {
  yield call(fetchAll)
}

call(fetchAll) will terminate after:

The fetchAll() body itself terminates, this means all 3 effects are performed. Since fork effects are non blocking, the task will block on delay(1000)
The 2 forked tasks terminate, i.e. after fetching the required resources and putting the corresponding receiveData actions

So the whole task will block until a delay of 1000 millisecond passed and both task1 and task2 finished their business.

Say for example, the delay of 1000 milliseconds elapsed and the 2 tasks haven't yet finished, then fetchAll() will still wait for all forked tasks to finish before terminating the whole task.

With regard to error handling, if at a moment, for example, fetchAll() is blocked on the delay(1000) Effect, and say, task1 failed, then the whole fetchAll() task will fail causing cancellation of all other pending tasks. This includes:

The main task (the body of fetchAll()): cancelling it means cancelling the current Effect delay(1000)
The other forked tasks which are still pending. i.e. task2 in our example.
The call(fetchAll) will raise itself an error which will be caught in the catch body of main

Note we're able to catch the error from call(fetchAll) inside main only because we're using a blocking call. And that we can't catch the error directly from fetchAll(). This is a rule of thumb, you can't catch errors from forked tasks.

...etc...

function* main() {
  try {
    yield call(fetchAll)
  } catch (e) {
    // handle fetchAll errors
  }
}

spawn()

The spawn() function is essentially the same as fork() except that the launched processes are detached from the parent saga; once started they have no connection back to the parent. This means that each spawned saga must be cancalled individually, and any errors will not be propagated back to the parent.

all()

An alternative to using fork() is the all() Effect, where an array of Effects is passed to all(), each of which will be launched as a process in parallel.

Taking the example used in the fork() section above, note that this can be rewritten as:

function* fetchAll() {
  yield all([
    call(fetchResource, 'users'),
    call(fetchResource, 'comments'),
  ])
  yield delay(1000)
}

The result will be similar except for two significant details:

The all() effect is blocking, so delay(1000) is not executed until all children sagas complete, while fork() effects are non-blocking so delay(1000) is executed immediately after yielding the fork effects.
You can get task descriptors when using fork() effects, so in the subsequent code you can cancel/join the forked task via task descriptors. This is not possible in the all() case.

A work around for these two differences is to combine all() and fork() in the following manner:

const [task1, task2, task3] = yield all([ fork(saga1), fork(saga2), fork(saga3) ])

In this case, since the fork() effects are non-blocking, all() will return immediately, and the returned tasks can be used to cancel/join a process. It is not possible, however, to catch errors in the parent task.

race()

The race() function is useful in cases where you want to run several effects in parallel but you only care about the result from the first to complete. Essentially, the effects "race" to complete.

A simple example of this would be setting a timeout for an effect, e.g.:

import { race, take, put, call, delay } from 'redux-saga/effects'

function* startPollingSaga(action) {
    // Race the following commands with a timeout of 1 minute
    const { response, cancel, failed, timeout } = yield race({
      response: call(checkJobStatus), // start the effect
      cancel: take("CANCEL_POLLING"), // check if effect canceled
      failed: take("POLLING_FAILED"), // check if effect failed
      timeout: call(delay, 60000)     // check if timeout exceeded
    });
    
    // handle failure scenario
    if (failed) {
      yield put({type: "HANDLE_POLLING_FAILURE"});
    }
}

Redux Thunk Example

index.js

...etc...

import thunk from 'redux-thunk';

...etc...

const store = createStore(
  rootReducer,
  composeEnhancers(applyMiddleware(thunk))
);

...etc...

store/actions/actionTypes.js

Create identifiers for sign-out actions.

...etc...

export const AUTH_SIGN_OUT = 'AUTH_SIGN_OUT';

...etc...

store/actions/auth.js

Create sign-out actions.

...etc...

const AUTH_TOKEN = 'AUTH_TOKEN';
const AUTH_TOKEN_EXPIRATION = 'AUTH_TOKEN_EXPIRATION';
const AUTH_USER_ID = 'AUTH_USER_ID';

...etc...

// delete the token from localStorage
const removeTokenFromLocalStorage = () => {
  localStorage.removeItem(AUTH_TOKEN);
  localStorage.removeItem(AUTH_TOKEN_EXPIRATION);
  localStorage.removeItem(AUTH_USER_ID);
};

// Remove the token from localStorage when the user logs out.
// Note that this function executes both side-effects and notifies
// that sign-out should occur.
export const authSignOut = () => {
  removeTokenFromLocalStorage();
  return {
    type: actionTypes.AUTH_SIGN_OUT,
  };
};

// Log the user out of the firebase instance
// and delete the token.
// Called from wherever logout is required
// using dispatch(actions.authSignOut()).
export const signOut = () => {

  // this is the "thunk"
  return (dispatch) => {
    fire
      .auth()
      .signOut()
      .then((response) => {
        dispatch(authSignOut());
      })
      .catch((err) => {
        console.log(err);
        dispatch(authFail(err));
      });
  };
};

store/actions/index.js

Export action creators related to sign-out

...etc...

export {
  ...etc...
  signOut,
} from './auth';

store/reducers/auth.js

Create a reducer that updates the Redux store with the new login state.

import * as actionTypes from '../actions/actionTypes';
import { updateObject } from '../../shared/utility';

const initialState = {
  userId: null,
  token: null,
  error: null,
  loading: false,
  authRedirectPath: '/',
};

...etc...

const authSignOut = (state, action) => {
  return updateObject(state, { token: null, userId: null });
};;

...etc...

const reducer = (state = initialState, action) => {
  switch (action.type) {
    ...etc...

    case actionTypes.AUTH_SIGN_OUT: {
      return authSignOut(state, action);
    }
    
    ...etc...
  }
};

export default reducer;

Redux Saga Example

index.js

...etc...

import createSagaMiddleware from 'redux-saga';

import { watchAuth } from './store/sagas/index';

...etc...

const sagaMiddleware = createSagaMiddleware();

const store = createStore(
  rootReducer,
  composeEnhancers(applyMiddleware(thunk, sagaMiddleware))
);

sagaMiddleware.run(watchAuth);

...etc...

store/actions/actionTypes.js

Create identifiers for sign-out actions.

...etc...

export const AUTH_INITIATE_SIGN_OUT = 'AUTH_INITIATE_SIGN_OUT';
export const AUTH_SIGN_OUT = 'AUTH_SIGN_OUT';
export const AUTH_SIGN_OUT_SUCCEED = 'AUTH_SIGN_OUT_SUCCEED';

...etc...

store/sagas/auth.js

Create a saga that executes the sign-out actions.

import { put } from 'redux-saga/effects';

...etc...

const AUTH_TOKEN = 'AUTH_TOKEN';
const AUTH_TOKEN_EXPIRATION = 'AUTH_TOKEN_EXPIRATION';
const AUTH_USER_ID = 'AUTH_USER_ID';

...etc...

// delete the token from localStorage
function* removeTokenFromLocalStorage() {
  yield localStorage.removeItem(AUTH_TOKEN);
  yield localStorage.removeItem(AUTH_TOKEN_EXPIRATION);
  yield localStorage.removeItem(AUTH_USER_ID);
}

// logout from firebase
function doLogout() {
  return fire.auth().signOut();
}

// clean-up local storage
export function* authInitiateSignOutSaga() {
  // run side-effects (i.e. clean-up)
  yield removeTokenFromLocalStorage();
  // attempt to logout from server
  yield put(actions.authSignOut());
}

// log the user out of the firebase instance
export function* authSignOutSaga(action) {
  try {
    yield doLogout();
    yield put(actions.authSignOutSucceed());
  } catch (err) {
    console.log(err);
    yield put(actions.authFail(err));
  }
}

store/sagas/index.js

Create a watcher for the sign-out actions.

import { takeEvery } from 'redux-saga/effects';

import * as actionTypes from '../actions/actionTypes';
import {
  authInitiateSignOutSaga,
  authSignOutSaga,
} from './auth';


export function* watchAuth() {
  // sets up a listener for id and then
  // executes function when it appears
  yield takeEvery(actionTypes.AUTH_INITIATE_SIGN_OUT, authInitiateSignOutSaga); // clean-up
  yield takeEvery(actionTypes.AUTH_SIGN_OUT, authSignOutSaga); // sign-out
}

store/actions/auth.js

Create the sign-out actions.

import * as actionTypes from '../actions/actionTypes';

...etc...

// clean-up local storage before sign-out
export const authInitiateSignOut = () => {
  return {
    type: actionTypes.AUTH_INITIATE_SIGN_OUT,
  };
};

// log the user out of the firebase instance
export const authSignOut = () => {
  return {
    type: actionTypes.AUTH_SIGN_OUT,
  };
};

// clear the token from the Redux store
export const authSignOutSucceed = () => {
  return {
    type: actionTypes.AUTH_SIGN_OUT_SUCCEED,
  };
};

store/actions/index.js

Export action creators related to sign-out

...etc...

export {
  ...etc...
  authInitiateSignOut,
  authSignOut,
  authSignOutSucceed,
} from './auth';

store/reducers/auth.js

Create a reducer that updates the Redux store with the new login state.

import * as actionTypes from '../actions/actionTypes';
import { updateObject } from '../../shared/utility';

const initialState = {
  userId: null,
  token: null,
  error: null,
  loading: false,
  authRedirectPath: '/',
};

...etc...

const authSignOutSucceed = (state, action) => {
  return updateObject(state, { token: null, userId: null });
};;

...etc...

const reducer = (state = initialState, action) => {
  switch (action.type) {
    ...etc...

    case actionTypes.AUTH_SIGN_OUT_SUCCEED: {
      return authSignOutSucceed(state, action);
    }
    
    ...etc...
  }
};

export default reducer;

In cases where a function returns a promise (such as when querying a web server), the promise().then().catch() syntax is not used (due to the complications present by the asynchronous nature of generators).

So, if we consider the following example:

export const queryIngredients = () => {
  return (dispatch) => {
    axios
      .get('/ingredients.json')
      .then((response) => {
        dispatch(setIngredients(response.data));
      })
      .catch((error) => {
        console.log(error);
        dispatch(fetchIngredientsFailed());
      });
  };
};

To be converted to a saga, this should be implemented in the following manner:

export function* queryIngredientsSaga(action) {
  try {
    // yield wait until the promise is resolved and
    // then return the *value* of the promise
    const response = yield axios.get('/ingredients.json');
    
    // the resolved value can then be returned using the
    // usual yield put() pattern.
    yield put(actions.setIngredients(response.data));
  } catch (error) {
    // for error handling, try/catch is used, rather
    // than .catch().
    yield console.log(error);
    yield put(actions.fetchIngredientsFailed());
  }
}

Overview

Probably the most important hook is the useState() function, which allows Functional Components to update the application state.

When using useState(), the state can be initialized with any value (unlike class-based state that can only use simple objects).
useState() returns an array with exactly two elements.
- The first element is the current state.
- The second element will always be a update function that allows the state to be overwritten.
This update function returned by useState() requires that the entire state be overwritten; it does not allow specific properties to be updated (unlike setState()).

NOTE: If the state is updated multiple times in the same render, there is a risk that the current state may be out of date (due to the unpredictable way in which rendering happens). To avoid this, the actual updating can be delegated to a function that can be passed as an argument to the update function. In this case, the delegate function will receive the latest state, even if it hasn't yet been fully committed for this render cycle.

Using useState()

An example implementation using useState() is the following:

IngredientForm.js

import React, { useState } from 'react';

...etc...

const IngredientForm = React.memo((props) => {
  
  // get initial state at beginning of render cycle
  const [initialState, updateState] = useState({ title: '', amount: '' });

  const submitHandler = (event) => {
    event.preventDefault();
    // ...
  };

  return (
    <section className="ingredient-form">
      <Card>
        <form onSubmit={submitHandler}>
          <div className="form-control">
            <label htmlFor="title">Name</label>
            <input
              type="text"
              id="title"
              value={initialState.title}
              onChange={(event) => {
                // assign new value to variable, to avoid
                // issues with closure (function in function)
                const newTitle = event.target.value;

                /* Update latest state, not initial state */
                updateState((latestState) => ({
                  title: newTitle,
                  amount: latestState.amount,
                }));
              } }
            />
          </div>
          <div className="form-control">
            <label htmlFor="amount">Amount</label>
            <input
              type="number"
              id="amount"
              value={initialState.amount}
              onChange={(event) => {
                // assign new value to variable, to avoid
                // issues with closure (function in function)
                const newAmount = event.target.value;

                /* Update latest state, not initial state */
                updateState((latestState) => ({
                  title: latestState.title,
                  amount: newAmount,
                }));
              } }
            />
          </div>
          <div className="ingredient-form__actions">
            <button type="submit">Add Ingredient</button>
          </div>
        </form>
      </Card>
    </section>
  );
});

export default IngredientForm;

Note that this example has three issues:

There is a closure issue that means that care needs to be taken to ensure the correct value is passed into the update function.
Since there is only a since state object, care must be taken to merge in values for all properties, even if they haven't changed.
Since unchanged values must be merged, care must be taken to ensure that the latest version of the values are used.

These three issues can be avoided if, rather than using a single state object, a different state is used for each property.

If the above example is updated along these lines, the following is the result:

IngredientForm.js

import React, { useState } from 'react';

...etc...

const IngredientForm = React.memo((props) => {

  // get initial state at beginning of render cycle
  const [enteredTitle, setEnteredTitle] = useState('');
  const [enteredAmount, setEnteredAmount] = useState('');

  const submitHandler = (event) => {
    event.preventDefault();
    // ...
  };

  return (
    <section className="ingredient-form">
      <Card>
        <form onSubmit={submitHandler}>
          <div className="form-control">
            <label htmlFor="title">Name</label>
            <input
              type="text"
              id="title"
              value={enteredTitle}
              onChange={(event) => {
                setEnteredTitle(event.target.value);
              } }
            />
          </div>
          <div className="form-control">
            <label htmlFor="amount">Amount</label>
            <input
              type="number"
              id="amount"
              value={enteredAmount}
              onChange={(event) => {
                setEnteredAmount(event.target.value);
              } }
            />
          </div>
          <div className="ingredient-form__actions">
            <button type="submit">Add Ingredient</button>
          </div>
        </form>
      </Card>
    </section>
  );
});

export default IngredientForm;

Passing State Between Components

props are used to pass state from parent to child.

Extending the example above, IngredientForm is a child of the Ingredients component, which controls the list of ingredients. This means that Ingredients can pass props (in the following case, an addIngredientHandler() function) to IngredientForm.

The Ingredients component maintains its own state, which can be updated by addIngredientHandler

Ingredients.js

This is the parent object that controls the list of ingredients.

import React, { useState } from 'react';

import IngredientForm from './IngredientForm';
import IngredientList from './IngredientList';
import Search from './Search';

function Ingredients() {
  const [ingredients, setIngredients] = useState([]);

  const addIngredientHandler = (ingredient) => {
    setIngredients((latestIngredients) => [
      ...latestIngredients,
      { id: Math.random().toString(), ...ingredient },
    ]);
  };

  return (
    <div className="App">
      {/* Pass handler to form via props */}
      <IngredientForm onAddIngredient={addIngredientHandler} />

      <section>
        <Search />
        <IngredientList ingredients={ingredients} onRemoveItem={() => {} } />
      </section>
    </div>
  );
}

export default Ingredients;

IngredientForm.js

The form is a child of the list of ingredients.

...etc...

const IngredientForm = React.memo((props) => {

  ...etc...

  const submitHandler = (event) => {
    event.preventDefault();

    // call handler from props passed by parent Ingredients component
    props.onAddIngredient({ title: enteredTitle, amount: enteredAmount });
  };

  return (
    <section className="ingredient-form">
      <Card>
        <form onSubmit={submitHandler}>
        
          ...etc...
          
          <div className="ingredient-form__actions">
            <button type="submit">Add Ingredient</button>
          </div>
        </form>
      </Card>
    </section>
  );
});

export default IngredientForm;

Overview

Another important hook is the useEffect() function, which allows side-effects, such as querying data sources, to be performed. A side-effect is any action that cannot be handled as part of the normal rendering flow.

The function can be reference multiple times in the same component (as long as it obeys the general rules for hooks).

By default, useEffect() is called after every render cycle. This can be a problem because if useEffect() updates the app, this will force a re-render, which will call useEffect() again, which will force a re-render, etc.

Controlling The Function

To avoid an infinite loop, useEffect() can be controlled by passing a dependency (an object, or array of objects) into the function and the function only reacts if the dependency has changed. In this case, the function emulates componentDidUpdate().

For example,

useEffect( () => { somefunction; }, [someobject] ); )

To have the function run only the first time an object is rendered, pass an empty array. In this case, the function emulates componentDidMount().

useEffect( () => { somefunction; }, [] ); )

NOTE: the dependencies should be listed only if they actually change so, for example, props should not be listed as a dependency unless the goal is for the component to rerender whenever any child of props changes. A typical fix for this is to use object destructing to extract out the specific objects of interest from props, e.g.


const { onLoadIngredients } = props;

// avoid useEffect( () => { somefunction; }, [props.onLoadIngredients] ); )
useEffect( () => { somefunction; }, [onLoadIngredients] ); )

NOTE: the dependencies must exist in the enclosing context if there are to be used as triggers.

Cleaning Up

The useEffect() function can also be used to clean-up after a render cycle, or when a component is unmounted (destroyed).

This is done by returning a function from useEffect(), e.g.

useEffect( () => { somefunction; return () => { cleanupfunction }; }, [props.somedata] );

The returned function runs BEFORE the main useEffect() function runs, but AFTER the (first) render cycle.

If an empty array is passed, the cleanup function will only run when the component is unmounted (destroyed).

To understand useCallback(), it is crucial to remember that JavaScript functions are objects, which means that, by default, they get created anew whenever they are called. If this is not desirable, it is necessary to cache the function and re-use the cached version.

At first glance, the useCallback() hook appears to work in a similar fashion to the useEffect() hook: it allows control over how a function behaves based on changes to a dependency. It does not, however, actually run a function; it merely returns a callback to a function.

The hook works by caching the wrapped function and then only re-creating it once a dependency has changed.

For example, in the following case it may not be desirable for setIngredients() to be created anew every time filterIngredientsHandler is triggered (e.g. this might involve an expensive HTTP call):

  const filteredIngredientsHandler = (filteredIngredients) => {
    setIngredients(filteredIngredients);
  };

To avoid the unnecessary re-runs, the call to setIngredients() is wrapped with useCallback():

  const filteredIngredientsHandler = useCallback((filteredIngredients) => {
    setIngredients(filteredIngredients);
  }, []);

NOTE: in this particular case, an empty array is passed as the dependency, which means that the function will be created the first time, but in future a cached version will always be used.

NOTE: as in the useEffect() case, the dependencies must exist in the enclosing context (so, in the above example, setIngredients() could be used as a dependency but filterIngredients cannot).

In terms of functionality, there is no significant difference between useMemo() and React.memo(); both memorize the result of a function and only re-run the function if the props change. Having said that, React.memo() can be used in both class and functional components (it is not a hook!), whereas useMemo() can only be used in functional components.

Note that these functions differ from useCallback() in that useCallback() returns a function, whereas useMemo() and React.memo() both return the result of a function.

React.memo():

const Counter = (props) => {
  console.log('Render: ', props.children);

  return (
    <div>
      {props.children}: {props.value}
    </div>
  );

  // areEqual is an optional function that allows finer
  // controls over how changes in props are detected
  const areEqual = (prevProps, nextProps) => {
    /*
      return true if passing nextProps to render would return
      the same result as passing prevProps to render,
      otherwise return false
    */
  };
};

// if neither value nor children change, the Counter 
// function is not re-run.
// areEqual is an optional argument
export default React.memo(Counter, areEqual);

useMemo():

const renderCounter = (props) => {
  console.log('Render: ', props.children);

  return (
    <div>
      {props.children}: {props.value}
    </div>
  );
};

const Counter = (props) => {
  return useMemo(() => renderCounter(props), [props.children, props.value]);
};

export default Counter

NOTE: It is possible to make performance worse by use useMemo() in small apps, since more time may be spent checking if rendering should happen than actually doing the rendering.

In the section on Refs, it is discussed how these are used to access specific elements of the DOM. Specifically, they are used for accessing HTML elements or class components. They cannot, however, be used to refer to functional components.

To emulate this behaviour with functional components, the useRef() hook is used.

The basic pattern is:

Create ref to null before the return method: const myBtnRef = useRef(null);
Add the ref to the element of interest: <button ref={myBtnRef} onClick={props.clicked}>
Call the ref using the useEffect() hook (.current gives the current value of the referenced element): useEffect(() => { myBtnRef.current.click(); }, []);

The reason the ref must be called from useEffect() is that it cannot be called before the functional component has returned (since the elements of the component must be initialized).

Since useEffect() is only called after the return method, this makes it an appropriate place to access the ref.

import React, { useEffect, useRef } 
        from 'react';

const Cockpit = (props) => {
  const toggleBtnRef = useRef(null);

  // clicks the button after *first* render cycle
  useEffect(() => {
  
    toggleBtnRef.current.click();
    
  }, []); // empty array, so only runs first time

  ...

  return (
    <div>
      <button 
        ref={toggleBtnRef} 
        onClick={props.clicked}
      >
        Toggle Persons
      </button>
    </div>
  );
};

In the case where there are multiple, closely related state changes (e.g. setIngredients, addIngredient, deleteIngredient), an alternative approach to using useState() is useReducer(). This can often result in cleaner code as well.

NOTE: There is no connection between useReducer() and Redux!

The general pattern for a reducer is:

const myReducer = (currentState, action) => {
  switch (action.type) {
    case 'ACTION1': {
      return doAction1(currentState, action.prop1);
    }
    case 'ACTION2': {
      return doAction2(currentState, action.prop2);
    }
    case 'ACTION3': {
      return doAction2(currentState, action.prop2, action.prop3);
    }
    default: {
      // typically this wouldn't be reached, so maybe:
      throw new Error('Should not get here!');
    }
  }
};

function MyComponent() {
  // startingState could be an empty array []
  const [updatedState, dispatch] = useReducer(myReducer, startingState);
  
  return (
    ...etc...
  );
}

For a more concrete example:

import React, { useReducer, useCallback } from 'react';

const ingredientReducer = (currentIngredients, action) => {
  switch (action.type) {
    case 'SET': {
      return action.ingredients;
    }
    case 'ADD': {
      return [...currentIngredients, action.ingredient];
    }
    case 'DELETE': {
      return currentIngredients.filter((ing) => ing.id !== action.id);
    }
    default: {
      throw new Error('Should not get here!');
    }
  }
};

function Ingredients() {
  const [ingredients, dispatch] = useReducer(ingredientReducer, []);

  const filteredIngredientsHandler = useCallback((filteredIngredients) => {
    dispatch({ type: 'SET', ingredients: filteredIngredients });
  }, []);

  const addIngredientHandler = (ingredient) => {
      dispatch({
        type: 'ADD',
        ingredient: { id: ingredient.id, ...ingredient },
      });
  };

  const removeIngredientHandler = (id) => {
    dispatch({ type: 'DELETE', id: id });
  };

  return (
    ...etc...
  );
}

export default Ingredients;

useContext() allows the Context API (discussed previously) to be emulated for functional components. Its purpose is to share some common context between the multiple components of an app.

There are two main steps to accomplist this:

Wrap the app in an AuthContextProvider component, provides access to the shared context throughout the app.
Use useContext() to access the shared context in a specific functional component.

context/auth-context.js

Initially create a context using React.createContext(), as in the class component case, but also add an AuthContextProvider component that exposes the shared context to any children it wraps.

import React, { useState } from 'react';

export const AuthContext = React.createContext({
  isAuth: false,
  logn: () => {},
});

const AuthContextProvider = (props) => {
  const [isAuthenticated, setIsAuthenticated] = useState(false);

  const loginHandler = () => {
    setIsAuthenticated(true);
  };

  return (
    <AuthContext.Provider
      value={ { login: loginHandler, isAuth: isAuthenticated } }
    >
      {props.children}
    </AuthContext.Provider>
  );
};

export default AuthContextProvider;

index.js

Wrap the app in the AuthContextProvider component.

import React from 'react';
import ReactDOM from 'react-dom';

import './index.css';
import App from './App';
import AuthContextProvider from './context/auth-context';

ReactDOM.render(
  <AuthContextProvider>
    <App />
  </AuthContextProvider>,
  document.getElementById('root')
);

components/Auth.js

Obtain a reference to the shared context (using useContext()) and then use the shared login() function in this component.

import React, { useContext } from 'react';

import { AuthContext } from '../context/auth-context';
import './Auth.css';

const Auth = (props) => {
  const authContext = useContext(AuthContext);
  const loginHandler = () => {
    authContext.login();
  };

  return (
    <div className="auth">
      <Card>
        <h2>You are not authenticated!</h2>
        <p>Please log in to continue.</p>
        <button onClick={loginHandler}>Log In</button>
      </Card>
    </div>
  );
};

export default Auth;

App.js

Obtain a reference to the shared context (using useContext()) and then use the shared isAuth() property in this component.

import React, { useContext } from 'react';

import Ingredients from './components/Ingredients/Ingredients';
import Auth from './components/Auth';
import { AuthContext } from './context/auth-context';

const App = (props) => {
  const authContext = useContext(AuthContext);

  let content = <Auth />;
  if (authContext.isAuth) {
    content = <Ingredients />;
  }
  return content;
};

export default App;

If there is duplicate logic that affects the state of the components that use that logic, it not possible extract that logic to a normal function and re-use it (because an event in a child function cannot change the state of the parent function). This can be done, however, using hooks.

Note: when using custom hooks, you don't have one function shared by multiple components; each functional component get its own snapshot of the hook (i.e. each component gets the same logic, but not the same state).

Also note that hooks get executed for every render cycle, so they need to be coded accordingly.

At its most basic, a simple custom handler might be:

hooks/error-handler.js

import { useState, useEffect } from 'react';

// does not need a named function, but must be assigned
// one beginning with "use" in whichever component uses it.
export default (myClient) => {
  const [error, setError] = useState(null);

  const errorHandler = (err) => {
    setError(err ? err : null);
  };

  const errorConfirmedHandler = () => {
    setError(null);
  };

  const trySomething = myClient.doSomething(errorHandler);

  useEffect(() => {
    return trySomething();
  }, [trySomething]);
  
  return [error, errorConfirmedHandler];
};

This might be used in the following manner:

hoc/withErrorHandler.js

import React from 'react';
import useErrorHandler from '../hooks/error-handler';

const withErrorHandler = (myClient) => {
  return (props) => {
    const [error, clearError] = useErrorHandler(myClient);

    return (
      <Wrapper>
        <Modal show={error} modalClosed={clearError}>
          {error ? error.message : null}
        </Modal>
      </Wrapper>
    );
  };
};

export default withErrorHandler;

A slightly more robust example might have the following basic structure:

An internal state.
A reducer function that inputs an initial state and returns an updated state based on an action.
An exported hook (function), with a name beginning with "use".
- The hook can return anything it wishes (including nothing). It does not need to have a return pattern similar to useState(), for example.
- The methods that update the state do so by dispatching actions (and data related to the actions) to the reducer.

A generic example might be:

hooks/useMyHook.js

import { useReducer, useCallback } from 'react';

const ACTION_TYPE_1 = 'ACTION_TYPE_1';
const ACTION_TYPE_2 = 'ACTION_TYPE_2';
const ACTION_TYPE_3 = 'ACTION_TYPE_3';
const CLEAR = 'CLEAR';

const initialState = {
  prop1: null,
  isActive: false,
  prop3: null,
};

const myHookReducer = (currentHookState, action) => {
  switch (action.type) {
    case ACTION_TYPE_1: {
      return {
        ...currentHookState,
        prop1: action.prop1,
        prop3: action.prop3,
      };
    }
    case ACTION_TYPE_2: {
      return {
        ...currentHookState,
        isActive: true,
      };
    }
    case ACTION_TYPE_3: {
      return {
        ...currentHookState,
        isActive: false,
      };
    }
    case CLEAR: {
      return initialState;
    }
    default: {
      throw new Error('Should not get here!');
    }
  }
};

const useMyHook = () => {
  const [myHookState, dispatch] = useReducer(myHookReducer, initialState);

  // use useCallback(), with an empty array, to avoid this action being
  // re-created every time the parent component is rendered.
  const clear = useCallback(() => dispatch({ type: CLEAR }), []);

  // use useCallback(), with an empty array, to avoid this action being
  // re-created every time the parent component is rendered.
  const updateProps = useCallback((prop1, prop3) => {
    // something to update prop values
  }, []);

  // use useCallback() to avoid this action being
  // re-created every time the parent component is rendered.
  // updateProps() is passed as a dependency, since it too is wrapped
  // with useCallback().
  const doSomething = useCallback(
    (val1, val3) => {
      dispatch({ type: ACTION_TYPE_2 });

      const { updatedVal1, updatedVal3 } = updateProps(val1, val3);
      dispatch({
        type: ACTION_TYPE_1,
        prop1: updatedVal1,
        prop3: updatedVal3,
      });

      dispatch({ type: ACTION_TYPE_3 });
    },
    [updateProps]
  );

  // can return any type of object; in this case a simple
  // JavaScript object
  return {
    prop1: myHookState.prop1,
    isActive: myHookState.isActive,
    prop3: myHookState.prop3,
    doSomething: doSomething,
    clear: clear,
  };
};

export default useMyHook;

This hook could then be used in the following manner:

MyComponent.js

import React, { useEffect } from 'react';

import useMyHook from './hooks/useMyHook';

// React.memo() is used to ensure that the function 
// only re-runs if props changes
const MyComponent = React.memo((props) => {

  // get references to properties and methods of interest from hook
  const { prop1, isActive, prop3, doSomething, clear } = useMyHook();
  
  // useEffect() runs *after* the render but only if prop1,
  // prop3 or doSomething() have changed
  useEffect(() => {  
    // update the state stored in the hook
    doSomething(prop1, prop3);
  }, [prop1, prop3, doSomething]);

  return (
    <div>
      {isActive ? <span>Prop1: {prop1}</span> : <span>Prop3: {prop3}</span>}
      <button type="button" onClick={clear}>
        Clear
      </button>
    </div>
  );
});

export default MyComponent;

Two hooks introduced by Redux allow the connect()() function to be replaced. These hooks are:

useDispatch - effectively the same as mapDispatchToProps
useSelector - effectively the same as mapStateToProps

useDispatch()

WIP

useSelector()

useSelector() allows specific properties of the current state to be accessed. For example, in the following case, the ingredients object can be accessed directly.

const ingredients = useSelector((state) => state.burgerBuilder.ingredients);

WIP

An Example

The following is an example of converting a component to use these hooks:

import React, { useState, useEffect } from 'react';
import { connect } from 'react-redux';

...etc...

export const BurgerBuilder = (props) => {

  const onQueryIngredients = props.onQueryIngredients;

  useEffect(() => {
    onQueryIngredients();
  }, [onQueryIngredients]);

  const purchaseHandler = () => {
    if (props.isAuthenticated) {
      setPurchasing(true);
    } else {
      props.onSetAuthRedirectPath('/checkout');
      props.history.push('/auth');
    }
  };

  ...etc...

  return (
    ...etc...
  );
};

const mapStateToProps = (state) => {
  if (state) {
    return {
      ingredients: state.burgerBuilder.ingredients,
      totalPrice: state.burgerBuilder.totalPrice,
      error: state.burgerBuilder.error,
      isAuthenticated: state.auth.token !== null,
    };
  } else {
    return null;
  }
};

const mapDispatchToProps = (dispatch) => {
  return {
    onAddIngredient: (ingName) => dispatch(burgerBuilderActions.addIngredient(ingName)),
    onRemoveIngredient: (ingName) => dispatch(burgerBuilderActions.removeIngredient(ingName)),
    onQueryIngredients: () => dispatch(burgerBuilderActions.queryIngredients()),
    onInitPurchase: () => dispatch(burgerBuilderActions.purchaseInit()),
    onSetAuthRedirectPath: (path) => dispatch(burgerBuilderActions.setAuthRedirectPath(path)),
  };
};

export default connect(mapStateToProps, mapDispatchToProps)(BurgerBuilder);

Remove the connect import, but add imports for useDispatch and useSelector.
Call useDispatch() to create a new dispatch constant
Refactor the contents of mapDispatchToProps() into multiple dispatch() statements.
Refactor the contents of mapStateToProps into multiple useSelector() statements.
Remove the connect()() wrapper from the export statement.
Remove all references to props for all of the constants created by the dispatch() and useSelector() statements.
As necessary, wrap the new calls to dispatch() and useSelector() with useCallback() to avoid infinite calls to useEffects().

import React, { useEffect, useCallback } from 'react';
import { useDispatch, useSelector } from 'react-redux';

...etc...

export const BurgerBuilder = (props) => {

  const dispatch = useDispatch();

  const ingredients = useSelector((state) => state.burgerBuilder.ingredients);
  const totalPrice = useSelector((state) => state.burgerBuilder.totalPrice);
  const error = useSelector((state) => state.burgerBuilder.error);
  const isAuthenticated = useSelector((state) => state.auth.token !== null);

  const onAddIngredient = (ingName) => dispatch(burgerBuilderActions.addIngredient(ingName));
  const onRemoveIngredient = (ingName) => dispatch(burgerBuilderActions.removeIngredient(ingName));
  const onQueryIngredients = useCallback(() => dispatch(burgerBuilderActions.queryIngredients()), [
    dispatch,
  ]);
  const onInitPurchase = () => dispatch(burgerBuilderActions.purchaseInit());
  const onSetAuthRedirectPath = (path) => dispatch(burgerBuilderActions.setAuthRedirectPath(path));

  useEffect(() => {
    onQueryIngredients();
  }, [onQueryIngredients]);
  
  const purchaseHandler = () => {
    if (isAuthenticated) {
      setPurchasing(true);
    } else {
      onSetAuthRedirectPath('/checkout');
      props.history.push('/auth');
    }
  };

  ...etc...

  return (
    ...etc...
  );
};

export default BurgerBuilder;

Convert class components to functional components

import React, { Component } from 'react';

class App extends Component { 
  ...etc...

  render() {

    ...etc...
    
    if (this.props.isAuthenticated) {
    }
    
    return (
      <div>
        ...etc...
      </div>
    );
  }
}

Remove Component and convert to arrow function
Extract return() from render()
Remove render()
Replace this.props with props

import React from 'react';

const App = (props) => {
  ...etc...
  
  if (props.isAuthenticated) {
  }
  
  return (
    <div>
      ...etc...
    </div>
  );
};

Replace componentDidMount() with useEffect()

import React from 'react';

const App = (props) => {

  componentDidMount() {
    this.props.doSomething();
  }
  
  ...etc...
}

Import useEffect
Replace componentDidMount() from useEffect()
Replace this.props with props
Avoid using props as a dependency for useEffect()

import React, { useEffect } from 'react';

const App = (props) => {

  const doSomething = props.doSomething;
  
  useEffect(() => {
    doSomething();
  }, [doSomething]);
  
  ...etc...
};

Replace asyncComponent() with React.lazy()

import React from 'react';

const asyncCheckout = asyncComponent(() => {
  return import('./containers/Checkout/Checkout');
});

const App = (props) => {  

  let routes = (
    <Switch>
      <Route path="/checkout" component={asyncCheckout} />
      <Redirect to="/" />
    </Switch>
  );
  
  return (
    <div>
      {routes}
    </div>
  );
};

Replace asyncComponent() with React.lazy()
Rename asyncCheckout variable to Checkout (so that it can be used as a component)
In Route, replace component with render
Ensure props are passed to components
Import Suspense
Wrap lazy loading code with Suspense

import React, { Suspense } from 'react';

const Checkout = React.lazy(() => {
  return import('./containers/Checkout/Checkout');
});

const App = (props) => {  

  let routes = (
    <Switch>
      <Route path="/checkout" render={(props) => <Checkout {...props} />} />
      <Redirect to="/" />
    </Switch>
  );

  return (
    <div>
      <Suspense fallback={<p>Loading...</p>}> 
        {routes}
      </Suspense>
    </div>
  );
};

Replace state with useState()

import React, { Component } from 'react';

class Layout extends Component {
  state = {
    showSideDrawer: false,
  };

  sideDrawerToggleHandler = () => {
    this.setState((prevState) => {
      return { showSideDrawer: !prevState.showSideDrawer };
    });
  };

  render() {
    return (
      <div>
        <Toolbar toggle={this.sideDrawerToggleHandler} />

        <SideDrawer
          isAuth={this.props.isAuthenticated}
          open={this.state.showSideDrawer}
          closed={this.sideDrawerToggleHandler}
        />
      </div>
    );
  }
}

Import useState
Replace local state with useState
- For large or complex states, use multiple useState functions.
Replace setState() with useState setter
Replace this.state with useState value

import React, { useState } from 'react';

const Layout = (props) => {
  const [sideDrawerIsVisible, setSideDrawerIsVisible] = useState(false);

  const sideDrawerToggleHandler = () => {
    setSideDrawerIsVisible(!sideDrawerIsVisible);
  };

  return (
    <div>
      <Toolbar toggle={sideDrawerToggleHandler} />

      <SideDrawer
        isAuth={props.isAuthenticated}
        open={sideDrawerIsVisible}
        closed={sideDrawerToggleHandler}
      />
    </div>
  );
}

Refactor componentWillMount()

  UNSAFE_componentWillMount() {
    this.reqInterceptor = axios.interceptors.request.use((req) => {
      this.setState({ error: null });
      return req;
    });
    
    this.resInterceptor = axios.interceptors.response.use(
      (res) => {
        return res;
      },
      (error) => {
        this.setState({ error: error });
      }
    );
  }
  
  render() {
    return (
      ...etc...
    );
  }

Cannot use useEffect() because componentWillMount() runs before rendering.

The solution is simply to move the contents of componentWillMount() out of the function so that it runs inline. This will then run before the function renders (i.e. the return statement), which is effectively the same behaviour as componentWillMount().

NOTE: When wrapping a functional app in StrictMode (which create-react-app now does by default), you need to ensure that the Axios error handler explicitly returns a rejected Promise, otherwise behaviour may be unexpected (this is related to the face that StrictMode causes some functions to run multiple times in dev mode - see https://stackoverflow.com/questions/60305074/react-strictmode-setstate-function-in-useeffect-is-run-multiple-times-when-effe for further details.)

  const reqInterceptor = axios.interceptors.request.use((req) => {
    setError(null);
    return req;
  });
  
  const resInterceptor = axios.interceptors.response.use(
    (res) => {
      return res;
    },
    (err) => {
      setError(err);
      // required by StrictMode
      return Promise.reject(err);
    }
  );
     
  return (
    ...etc...
  );

Replace componentWillUnmount() with useEffect()

  componentWillUnmount() {
    axios.interceptors.request.eject(this.reqInterceptor);
    axios.interceptors.response.eject(this.resInterceptor);
  }

In this case, the purpose of componentWillUnmount() is to ensure the code runs when the component exits. This is effectively the same behaviour as only specifying a clean-up function for useEffect().

import React, { useEffect } from 'react';

  useEffect(() => {
    return () => {
      axios.interceptors.request.eject(reqInterceptor);
      axios.interceptors.response.eject(resInterceptor);
    };
  }, [reqInterceptor, resInterceptor]);

Assign functions to constants

  errorConfirmedHandler = () => {
    setError(null);
  };

  render() {
    return (
      <div>
        <Modal modalClosed={this.errorConfirmedHandler} />
      </div>
    );
  }

Make function a const, rather than a method.
Call the function without using this

  const errorConfirmedHandler = () => {
    setError(null);
  };
    
  return (
    <div>
      <Modal modalClosed={errorConfirmedHandler} />
    </div>
  )

Replace shouldComponentUpdate() with React.memo()

class Modal extends Component {

  shouldComponentUpdate(nextProps, nextState) {
    return nextProps.show !== this.props.show || nextProps.children !== this.props.children;
  }

}

export default Modal;

Wrap the exported component in React.memo()
Take the test from shouldComponentUpdate and add it to React.memo() as a function.
Invert the test (React.memo() expects the inverse of shouldComponentUpdate())

const Modal = (props) => {

export default React.memo(
  Modal,
  (prevProps, nextProps) =>
    nextProps.show === prevProps.show && nextProps.children === props.children
);

Reasons for using Hooks rather than Redux:

Want to stay in the React world, to avoid learning Redux
Want to avoid including react-redux and redux in your bundle (to reduce its size)

Approach 1: Using the Context API

Downside: the Context API is not optimized for performance; every component that references the context will re-render when the context changes. This means it should not be used for high frequency updates (e.g. repeated user interactions). It is fine for low frequency updates, such as setting the theme, or logging in, but otherwise is probably best avoided.

In any event, rather than maintaining the state using a reducer:

reducers/products.js

import { TOGGLE_FAV } from '../actions/products';

const initialState = {
  products: [
    {
      id: 'p1',
      title: 'Red Scarf',
      description: 'A pretty red scarf.',
      isFavorite: false
    },
    {
      id: 'p2',
      title: 'Blue T-Shirt',
      description: 'A pretty blue t-shirt.',
      isFavorite: false
    },
    {
      id: 'p3',
      title: 'Green Trousers',
      description: 'A pair of lightly green trousers.',
      isFavorite: false
    },
    {
      id: 'p4',
      title: 'Orange Hat',
      description: 'Street style! An orange hat.',
      isFavorite: false
    }
  ]
};

const productReducer = (state = initialState, action) => {
  switch (action.type) {
    case TOGGLE_FAV:
      const prodIndex = state.products.findIndex(
        p => p.id === action.productId
      );
      const newFavStatus = !state.products[prodIndex].isFavorite;
      const updatedProducts = [...state.products];
      updatedProducts[prodIndex] = {
        ...state.products[prodIndex],
        isFavorite: newFavStatus
      };
      return {
        ...state,
        products: updatedProducts
      };
    default:
      return state;
  }
};

export default productReducer;

index.js

import React from 'react';
import ReactDOM from 'react-dom';
import { Provider } from 'react-redux';
import { combineReducers, createStore } from 'redux';
import { BrowserRouter } from 'react-router-dom';

import './index.css';
import App from './App';
import productReducer from './store/reducers/products';

const rootReducer = combineReducers({
  shop: productReducer
});

const store = createStore(rootReducer);

ReactDOM.render(
  <Provider store={store}>
    <BrowserRouter>
      <App />
    </BrowserRouter>
  </Provider>,
  document.getElementById('root')
);

containers/Products.js

import React from 'react';
import { useSelector } from 'react-redux';

import ProductItem from '../components/Products/ProductItem';
import './Products.css';

const Products = props => {
  const productList = useSelector(state => state.shop.products);
  return (
    <ul className="products-list">
      {productList.map(prod => (
        <ProductItem
          key={prod.id}
          id={prod.id}
          title={prod.title}
          description={prod.description}
          isFav={prod.isFavorite}
        />
      ))}
    </ul>
  );
};

export default Products;

components/Products/ProductItem.js

import React from 'react';
import { useDispatch } from 'react-redux';

import Card from '../UI/Card';
import './ProductItem.css';
import { toggleFav } from '../../store/actions/products';

const ProductItem = props => {
  const dispatch = useDispatch();

  const toggleFavHandler = () => {
    dispatch(toggleFav(props.id));
  };

  return (
    <Card style={{ marginBottom: '1rem' }}>
      <div className="product-item">
        <h2 className={props.isFav ? 'is-fav' : ''}>{props.title}</h2>
        <p>{props.description}</p>
        <button
          className={!props.isFav ? 'button-outline' : ''}
          onClick={toggleFavHandler}
        >
          {props.isFav ? 'Un-Favorite' : 'Favorite'}
        </button>
      </div>
    </Card>
  );
};

export default ProductItem;

containers/Favourites.js

import React from 'react';
import { useSelector } from 'react-redux';

import FavoriteItem from '../components/Favorites/FavoriteItem';
import './Products.css';

const Favorites = props => {
  const favoriteProducts = useSelector(state =>
    state.shop.products.filter(p => p.isFavorite)
  );
  let content = <p className="placeholder">Got no favorites yet!</p>;
  if (favoriteProducts.length > 0) {
    content = (
      <ul className="products-list">
        {favoriteProducts.map(prod => (
          <FavoriteItem
            key={prod.id}
            id={prod.id}
            title={prod.title}
            description={prod.description}
          />
        ))}
      </ul>
    );
  }
  return content;
};

export default Favorites;

...the state can be maintained using a context:

context/products-context.js

import React, { useState } from 'react';

export const ProductsContext = React.createContext({
  products: [],
  toggleFav: (id) => {},
});

export default (props) => {
  const [productsList, setProductsList] = useState([
    {
      id: 'p1',
      title: 'Red Scarf',
      description: 'A pretty red scarf.',
      isFavorite: false,
    },
    {
      id: 'p2',
      title: 'Blue T-Shirt',
      description: 'A pretty blue t-shirt.',
      isFavorite: false,
    },
    {
      id: 'p3',
      title: 'Green Trousers',
      description: 'A pair of lightly green trousers.',
      isFavorite: false,
    },
    {
      id: 'p4',
      title: 'Orange Hat',
      description: 'Street style! An orange hat.',
      isFavorite: false,
    },
  ]);

  const toggleFavorite = (productId) => {
    setProductsList((currentProductList) => {
      const prodIndex = currentProductList.findIndex((p) => p.id === productId);
      const newFavStatus = !currentProductList[prodIndex].isFavorite;
      const updatedProducts = [...currentProductList];
      updatedProducts[prodIndex] = {
        ...currentProductList[prodIndex],
        isFavorite: newFavStatus,
      };
      return updatedProducts;
    });
  };

  return (
    <ProductsContext.Provider
      value={{ products: productsList, toggleFav: toggleFavorite }}
    >
      {props.children}
    </ProductsContext.Provider>
  );
};

index.js

import React from 'react';
import ReactDOM from 'react-dom';
import { BrowserRouter } from 'react-router-dom';

import './index.css';
import App from './App';
import ProductsProvider from './context/products-context';

ReactDOM.render(
  <ProductsProvider>
    <BrowserRouter>
      <App />
    </BrowserRouter>
  </ProductsProvider>,
  document.getElementById('root')
);

containers/Products.js

import React, { useContext } from 'react';

import ProductItem from '../components/Products/ProductItem';
import { ProductsContext } from '../context/products-context';
import './Products.css';

const Products = (props) => {
  const productList = useContext(ProductsContext).products;
  return (
    <ul className="products-list">
      {productList.map((prod) => (
        <ProductItem
          key={prod.id}
          id={prod.id}
          title={prod.title}
          description={prod.description}
          isFav={prod.isFavorite}
        />
      ))}
    </ul>
  );
};

export default Products;

components/Products/ProductItem.js

import React, { useContext } from 'react';

import Card from '../UI/Card';
import './ProductItem.css';
import { ProductsContext } from '../../context/products-context';

const ProductItem = (props) => {
  const toggleFav = useContext(ProductsContext).toggleFav;

  const toggleFavHandler = () => {
    toggleFav(props.id);
  };

  return (
    <Card style={{ marginBottom: '1rem' }}>
      <div className="product-item">
        <h2 className={props.isFav ? 'is-fav' : ''}>{props.title}</h2>
        <p>{props.description}</p>
        <button
          className={!props.isFav ? 'button-outline' : ''}
          onClick={toggleFavHandler}
        >
          {props.isFav ? 'Un-Favorite' : 'Favorite'}
        </button>
      </div>
    </Card>
  );
};

export default ProductItem;

containers/Favorites.js

import React, { useContext } from 'react';

import FavoriteItem from '../components/Favorites/FavoriteItem';
import { ProductsContext } from '../context/products-context';
import './Products.css';

const Favorites = (props) => {
  const favoriteProducts = useContext(ProductsContext).products.filter(
    (p) => p.isFavorite
  );
  let content = <p className="placeholder">Got no favorites yet!</p>;
  if (favoriteProducts.length > 0) {
    content = (
      <ul className="products-list">
        {favoriteProducts.map((prod) => (
          <FavoriteItem
            key={prod.id}
            id={prod.id}
            title={prod.title}
            description={prod.description}
          />
        ))}
      </ul>
    );
  }
  return content;
};

export default Favorites;

Approach 2: Using a Custom Hook

Here, a custom hook is created that manages a generic state object.

The state object (globalState) is a global variable, which means that it will only be created the first time this hook is imported into a component. For all subsequent imports, the existing globalState will be used.

Within the hook, a local instance of the setState function is stored through use of a closure. This will be specific to the component into which the hook is imported (since it will be re-created everytime the hook is imported).

The listeners array is essentially a list of setState instances; one for each component into which the hook is imported.

hooks-store/store.js

import { useState, useEffect } from 'react';

// data is managed outside of hook
let globalState = {};
// all components that are interested in state
let listeners = [];
// actions that can update the state
let actions = {};

// in some instances, a component may only want to update the store, without
// then reacting to the change in state, so a shouldListen props is passed in
// to indicate this (to avoid unnecessary re-renders)
export const useStore = (shouldListen = true) => {
  // use global state
  // this will not be recreated when this file is imported anywhere
  // only interested in update function (since current state is global)
  const setState = useState(globalState)[1];

  // pass an identifier for the action, and any payload the
  // action requires
  const dispatch = (actionIdentifier, payload) => {
    // this is essentially the same concept as a reducer, where
    // an action results in a new state being returned
    const newState = actions[actionIdentifier](globalState, payload);

    // merge updated state with current state
    globalState = { ...globalState, ...newState };

    // update all listeners with updated state
    for (const listener of listeners) {
      // listener = setState
      listener(globalState);
    }
  };

  useEffect(() => {
    if (shouldListen) {
      // this is closure, so value of setState will be captured here
      listeners.push(setState);
    }

    // clean-up function
    // remove captured setState (keep all that are not this setState)
    return () => {
      if (shouldListen) {
        listeners = listeners.filter((li) => li !== setState);
      }
    };
  }, [setState, shouldListen]); // setState and shouldListen should never change, so this will only run when component is first mounted

  // this is the same pattern as useReducer
  return [globalState, dispatch];
};

// need a function to initialise the store with all of the actions, and an initial state
export const initStore = (userActions, initialState) => {
  if (initialState) {
    globalState = { ...globalState, ...initialState };
  }

  actions = { ...actions, ...userActions };
};

Once we have the generic store, this can be used to manage specific state:

hooks-store/products-store.js

import { initStore } from './store';

const configureStore = () => {
  const actions = {
    TOGGLE_FAV: (curState, productId) => {
      const prodIndex = curState.products.findIndex((p) => p.id === productId);
      const newFavStatus = !curState.products[prodIndex].isFavorite;
      const updatedProducts = [...curState.products];
      updatedProducts[prodIndex] = {
        ...curState.products[prodIndex],
        isFavorite: newFavStatus,
      };

      return { products: updatedProducts };
    },
  };

  initStore(actions, {
    products: [
      {
        id: 'p1',
        title: 'Red Scarf',
        description: 'A pretty red scarf.',
        isFavorite: false,
      },
      {
        id: 'p2',
        title: 'Blue T-Shirt',
        description: 'A pretty blue t-shirt.',
        isFavorite: false,
      },
      {
        id: 'p3',
        title: 'Green Trousers',
        description: 'A pair of lightly green trousers.',
        isFavorite: false,
      },
      {
        id: 'p4',
        title: 'Orange Hat',
        description: 'Street style! An orange hat.',
        isFavorite: false,
      },
    ],
  });
};

export default configureStore;

Then, to use the specific store:

index.js

import React from 'react';
import ReactDOM from 'react-dom';
import { BrowserRouter } from 'react-router-dom';

import './index.css';
import App from './App';
import configureProductStore from './hooks-store/products-store';

configureProductStore();

ReactDOM.render(
  <BrowserRouter>
    <App />
  </BrowserRouter>,
  document.getElementById('root')
);

containers/Products.js

import React from 'react';

import ProductItem from '../components/Products/ProductItem';
import { useStore } from '../hooks-store/store';
import './Products.css';

const Products = (props) => {
  // useStore returns [state, dispatch] but in this case we only care about state
  const state = useStore()[0];

  return (
    <ul className="products-list">
      {state.products.map((prod) => (
        <ProductItem
          key={prod.id}
          id={prod.id}
          title={prod.title}
          description={prod.description}
          isFav={prod.isFavorite}
        />
      ))}
    </ul>
  );
};

export default Products;

components/ProductItem.js

import React from 'react';

import Card from '../UI/Card';
import './ProductItem.css';
import { useStore } from '../../hooks-store/store';

// use React.memo to ensure the component does not get re-rendered
// unless the props change
const ProductItem = React.memo((props) => {
  console.log('RENDERING');
  // useStore returns [state, dispatch] but in this case we only care about dispatch function
  const dispatch = useStore(false)[1];

  const toggleFavHandler = () => {
    dispatch('TOGGLE_FAV', props.id);
  };

  return (
    <Card style={{ marginBottom: '1rem' }}>
      <div className="product-item">
        <h2 className={props.isFav ? 'is-fav' : ''}>{props.title}</h2>
        <p>{props.description}</p>
        <button
          className={!props.isFav ? 'button-outline' : ''}
          onClick={toggleFavHandler}
        >
          {props.isFav ? 'Un-Favorite' : 'Favorite'}
        </button>
      </div>
    </Card>
  );
});

export default ProductItem;

containers/Favorites.js

import React from 'react';

import FavoriteItem from '../components/Favorites/FavoriteItem';
import { useStore } from '../hooks-store/store';
import './Products.css';

const Favorites = (props) => {
  // useStore returns [state, dispatch] but in this case we only care about state
  const state = useStore()[0];

  const favoriteProducts = state.products.filter((p) => p.isFavorite);

  let content = <p className="placeholder">Got no favorites yet!</p>;
  if (favoriteProducts.length > 0) {
    content = (
      <ul className="products-list">
        {favoriteProducts.map((prod) => (
          <FavoriteItem
            key={prod.id}
            id={prod.id}
            title={prod.title}
            description={prod.description}
          />
        ))}
      </ul>
    );
  }
  return content;
};

export default Favorites;

Further Information

https://www.npmjs.com/package/use-global-hook - an NPM package that behaves in a similar manner to the custom store hook described above.

Spinner.js

import React from 'react';
import classes from './Spinner.module.css';

const Spinner = (props) => <div className={classes.Loader}>Loading...</div>;

export default Spinner;

Spinner.module.css

Generate the CSS using the following tool:

https://projects.lukehaas.me/css-loaders/

MyPage.js

import React, { Component } from 'react';
import axios from 'axios';

import Input from './Input';
import Button from './Button';
import Spinner from './Spinner';

class MyPage extends Component {
  state = {
    loading: false,
  };

  submitHandler = (event) => {
  
    this.setState({ loading: true });
    
    axios
      .post('https://mydatabase/my-data.json', data)
      .then((response) => {
        this.setState({ loading: false });
        this.props.history.push('/');
      })
      .catch((error) => {
        this.setState({ loading: false });
      });
  };
  
  render() {
    let content = (
      <form onSubmit={this.submitHandler}>
        <Input />
        <Button>
          SUBMIT
        </Button>
      </form>
    );
    
    if (this.state.loading) {
      content = <Spinner />;
    }

    return (
      <div>
        <h4>Enter your Data</h4>
        {content}
      </div>
    );
  }
}

export default MyPage;

A "Hamburger Button" is the nickname given to the icon that is commonly used for toggling a menu, particularly on mobile apps. The name comes from the resemblance with a hamburger.

HamburgerButton.js

import React from 'react';
import classes from './HamburgerButton.module.css';

const HamburgerButton = (props) => (
  <div className={classes.HamburgerButton} onClick={props.clicked}>
    <div></div>
    <div></div>
    <div></div>
  </div>
);

export default HamburgerButton;

HamburgerButton.module.css

.HamburgerButton {
  width: 40px;
  height: 100%;
  display: flex;
  flex-flow: column;
  justify-content: space-around;
  align-items: center;
  padding: 10px 0;
  box-sizing: border-box;
  cursor: pointer;
}

.HamburgerButton div {
  width: 90%;
  height: 3px;
  background-color: white;
}

@media (min-width: 500px) {
  .HamburgerButton {
      display: none;
  }
}

In this context, a backdrop refers to an overlay that is displayed to hide the background while something else is displayed in the foreground (e.g. a message dialog, or a slide-in dialog).

Backdrop.js

import React from 'react';
import classes from './Backdrop.module.css';

const Backdrop = (props) =>
  props.show ? <div className={classes.Backdrop} onClick={props.clicked}></div> : null;

export default Backdrop;

Backdrop.module.css

.Backdrop {
  width: 100%;
  height: 100%;
  position: fixed;
  z-index: 100;
  left: 0;
  top: 0;
  background-color: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.5);
}

/* If width < 350px or height < 300px  */
@media (max-width: 500px), (max-height: 500px) {
  .Backdrop {
    width: 500px;
    height: 715px;
  }
}

Modal.js

import React, { Component } from 'react';
import classes from './Modal.module.css';
import Wrapper from './Wrapper';
import Backdrop from './Backdrop';

class Modal extends Component {

  shouldComponentUpdate(nextProps, nextState) {
    return nextProps.show !== this.props.show || nextProps.children !== this.props.children;
  }

  render() {
    return (
      <Wrapper>
        <Backdrop show={this.props.show} clicked={this.props.modalClosed} />
        <div
          className={classes.Modal}
          style={ {
            transform: this.props.show ? 'translateY(0)' : 'translateY(-100vh)',
            opacity: this.props.show ? '1' : '0',
          } }
        >
          {this.props.children}
        </div>
      </Wrapper>
    );
  }
}

export default Modal;

Backdrop.module.css

.Backdrop {
  width: 100%;
  height: 100%;
  position: fixed;
  z-index: 100;
  left: 0;
  top: 0;
  background-color: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.5);
}

/* If width < 350px or height < 300px  */
@media (max-width: 500px), (max-height: 500px) {
  .Backdrop {
    width: 500px;
    height: 715px;
  }
}

MyPage.js

class MyPage extends Component {
  state = {
    data: {},
    showData: false
  };
  
  modelOpenedHandler = (data) => {
    this.setState({ data: data, showData: true });
  };
  
  modalClosedHandler = () => {
    this.setState({ showData: false });
  };
  
  render() {
    let myData = (
        <MyData data={this.state.data} />
      );
    }

    if (this.state.loading) {
      myData = <Spinner />;
    }

    return (
      <Wrapper>
        <Modal show={this.state.showData} modalClosed={this.modalClosedHandler}>
          {myData}
        </Modal>
        <Content modelOpened={this.modalOpenedHandler} />
      </Wrapper>
    );
  }
}

Layout.js

import React, { Component } from 'react';

import classes from './Layout.module.css';

import Wrapper from './Wrapper';
import Toolbar from './Toolbar';
import SideDrawer from './SideDrawer';

class Layout extends Component {
  state = {
    showSideDrawer: false,
  };

  sideDrawerToggleHandler = () => {
    this.setState((prevState) => {
      return { showSideDrawer: !prevState.showSideDrawer };
    });
  };

  render() {
    return (
      <Wrapper>
        <Toolbar toggle={this.sideDrawerToggleHandler} />

        <SideDrawer open={this.state.showSideDrawer} closed={this.sideDrawerToggleHandler} />

        <main className={classes.Content}>{this.props.children}</main>
      </Wrapper>
    );
  }
}

export default Layout;

Layout.module.css

.Content {
  margin-top: 72px;
  width: 100%;
}

/* If width < 350px or height < 300px  */
@media (max-width: 350px), (max-height: 300px) {
  .Content {
    width: 350px;
    height: 600px;
    background-color: red;
  }
}

Toolbar.js

import React from 'react';

import classes from './Toolbar.module.css';

import Logo from './Logo';
import NavigationItems from '../NavigationItems';
import HamburgerButton from './HamburgerButton'

const Toolbar = (props) => (
  <header className={classes.Toolbar}>
    <div className={[classes.HamburgerButton, classes.MobileOnly].join(' ')}>
      <HamburgerButton clicked={props.toggle} />
    </div>
    <div className={classes.Logo}>
      <Logo />
    </div>
    <nav className={classes.DesktopOnly}>
      <NavigationItems/>
    </nav>
  </header>
);

export default Toolbar;

Toolbar.module.css

.Toolbar {
  height: 56px;
  width: 100%;
  position: fixed;
  top: 0;
  left: 0;
  background-color: #703b09;
  display: flex;
  justify-content: space-between;
  align-items: center;
  padding: 0 20px;
  box-sizing: border-box;
  z-index: 90;
}

.Toolbar nav {
  height: 100%;
}

.Logo {
  height: 80%;
}

.HamburgerButton {
  height: 100%;
}

/* If width > 500px */
@media (max-width: 500px) {
  .DesktopOnly {
    display: none;
  }
}

/* If width < 499px */
@media (min-width: 499px) {
  .MobileOnly {
    display: none;
  }
}

SideDrawer.js

import React from 'react';

import classes from './SideDrawer.module.css';

import Wrapper from './Wrapper';
import Backdrop from '../Backdrop';
import Logo from './Logo';
import NavigationItems from './NavigationItems';

const SideDrawer = (props) => {
  let attachedClasses = [classes.SideDrawer, classes.Close];
  if (props.open) {
    attachedClasses = [classes.SideDrawer, classes.Open];
  }

  return (
    <Wrapper>
      <Backdrop show={props.open} clicked={props.closed} />
      <div className={attachedClasses.join(' ')}>
        <div className={classes.Logo}>
          <Logo />
        </div>
        <nav>
          <NavigationItems />
        </nav>
      </div>
    </Wrapper>
  );
};

export default SideDrawer;

SideDrawer.module.css

.SideDrawer {
  position: fixed;
  width: 280px;
  max-width: 70%;
  height: 100%;
  left: 0;
  top: 0;
  z-index: 200;
  background-color: white;
  padding: 32px 16px;
  box-sizing: border-box;
  transition: transform 0.3s ease-out;
}

@media (min-width: 500px) {
  .SideDrawer {
    display: none;
  }
}

.Open {
  transform: translateX(0);
}

.Close {
  transform: translateX(-100%);
}

.Logo {
  position: relative;
  height: 11%;
  width: 45%;
  max-width: 100%;
  margin-bottom: 32px;
}

Move along; nothing to see here...

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React

index.js

App.js

Calculator/Calculator.js

put()

takeEvery()

take()

call()

delay()

fork()

spawn()

all()

race()

Redux Thunk Example

Redux Saga Example

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React

index.js

App.js

Calculator/Calculator.js

put()

takeEvery()

take()

call()

delay()

fork()

spawn()

all()

race()

Redux Thunk Example

Redux Saga Example

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Owner

Metadata

reactjs-cheat-sheet
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